A kingdom is a state with a king or queen as its head. An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant centre and subordinate peripheries". There were many kingdoms and empires in all regions of the continent of Africa throughout history, despite popular understanding often being that the continent lacked large states or meaningful complex political organisation. States emerged in a process covering many generations and centuries, as economic development "gave rise to a perceived need for centralized institutions and ‘territorial’ leadership that transcended older bonds of kinship and community". Kings and queens used both "instrumental power", the employment of direct influence to achieve a desired outcome, and "creative power", the use of ritual and mythology. Whether rooted in ignorance, Eurocentrism, or racism, famous historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper have argued that African history is not characterised by state formation or hierarchical structures. In fact, the nature of political organisation varied greatly across the continent, from the expansive West Sudanic empires, to the sacral Congolese empires akin to confederations or commonwealths, and the immensely hierarchical kingdoms of the Great Lakes. The vast majority of states included in this list existed prior to the Scramble for Africa (c. 1880–1914) when, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution, almost all of the continent came under the control of European powers. While most kingdoms were conquered and dissolved, some kings and elites negotiated the terms of colonial rule, and traditional power structures were often utilised by the colonial authorities. In the mid-late 20th century decolonisation saw Africans inherit the former colonies, and many kingdoms still exist today as non–sovereign monarchies. The roles, powers, and influence of non–sovereign monarchs throughout Africa vary greatly depending on the state. In some states, such as Angola, the local monarch may play an integral role in the local governing council of a region. They are often regarded as custodians of tradition and culture, and in some cases, play an important role in local religious activities. On the flipside their powers may be curtailed, as happened in 2022 with Wadai in Chad, or had their positions abolished, as happened in Tanzania in 1962, and in 1966 in Uganda with Buganda, which was later restored in 1993. In this list they are labelled (NSM). There are only three current sovereign monarchies in Africa; two of which (Lesotho and Morocco) are constitutional monarchies where the rulers are bound by laws and customs in the exercise of their powers, while one (Eswatini) is an absolute monarchy where the monarch rules without bounds. Sovereign monarchies are labelled (SM). There have been a number of autocrats in Africa who invoked hereditary succession in order to preserve their regimes, such as the Bongos of Gabon, Gnassingbés of Togo, or Aptidon–Guelleh of Djibouti, generating the term monarchical republic. These have been tentatively included due to their similarities to, and possibly even taking inspiration from, the institution of monarchy and are labelled (MR).

Criteria

Only kingdoms and tribal kingdoms as per Elman Service's classifications that were once independent are included, excluding bands, tribes, and most chiefdoms. Dates have [one date for loss of independence] / [one date for loss of nominal rule]. Additional information such as notable articles may accompany entries. The intercontinental Islamic empires that covered parts of North and Northeast Africa are not included, and should be discussed as part of the Muslim world, however the residual fragments that had their capital on the continent of Africa are.

History periods and sources

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

Outside of North Africa, most of African political history relating to this time period has been pieced together through archaeological discoveries. There is very little written information about Sub–Saharan Africa at this time, besides that from outsiders such as "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", dated to the 1st century CE, and the accounts of Claudius Ptolemy, dated to the 2nd century CE, both illuminating the East African coast. The delicate threads of oral tradition generally do not go back this far.

7th century – 15th century CE

Sub–Saharan African societies have broadly been labelled "oral civilisations", contrasted with "literate civilisations", due to the emphasis placed on oral tradition and the important place it has in their cultures. As such, most of African history predating the colonial period has been preserved orally, passed down from generation to generation, and served a different function to the academic discipline of history. Perhaps the most famous examples of this is the Griots of West Africa, such as Balla Fasséké in the Mali Empire, who held largely hereditary positions. One of their roles was to study and memorise their people's history and serve in the king's court as an advisor, to represent the past, and to identify lessons. Whilst many oral traditions refer to this particular time period, they often take a mythological and parabolic form, and are over time condensed until eventually crystallising into a cliché, limiting but not eradicating their usefulness to modern historians, as displayed in the oral traditions about the Empire of Kitara, an empire in the Great Lakes region that existed from around the 10th century to 15th century CE. Following the spread of Islam to Africa in the 7th century CE, there were many more written histories, most notably from Ibn Khaldun, but also from al–Masudi, al–Bakri, al–Idrisi, Yaqut, Abulfeda, al–Umari, and Ibn Battuta. Ge'ez literature also began covering history from the 14th to 16th century.

16th century CE – present

There is a wealth of oral traditions referring to the modern period that offer important and often crucial information for modern historians. There were high levels of scepticism regarding oral histories among historians of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries leading to their obscurity, and whilst valid criticisms remain about their limitations, modern attitudes towards oral traditions as historical sources continue to improve. Increased trade with Europe and an influx of Catholic missions from the 16th century onwards produced more written information which supplemented the Arabic literature, however African historiography as we view it today didn't take off until the 19th century under increased European interest in the region. These histories have been invaluable to modern historians, however they were often written from the colonial perspective under the pretence of Western superiority, occasionally for the purpose of disseminating colonial narratives. This has provided the fuel for anti–African bias, particularly regarding their history, which still persists in many countries today.

Comparison between kingdoms

Historian Jan Vansina (1962) discusses the classification of Sub–Saharan African Kingdoms, mostly of Central, South and East Africa, with some additional data on West African (Sahelian) Kingdoms distinguishing five types, by decreasing centralization of power: Almost all sultanates embody (R) due to the nature of the Islamic version of kingship. For this reason, and in the interest of highlighting differences, classifications for sultanates will only reference the relationship between the sultan and their administration. Classifications not given as examples by Vansina are open to scrutiny (here). Ones where two classifications are given and joined by an "and" mean that the kingdom had elements from both present; [a] refers to the king's place and power, particularly in the nucleus, whilst [b] refers to the relationship between king and administration.

List of African kingdoms

A list of known kingdoms and empires on the African continent that we have record of.

North Africa

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

7th century – 15th century CE

16th century CE – present

East Africa

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

7th century – 15th century CE

16th century CE – present

West Africa

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

7th century – 15th century CE

16th century CE – present

Central Africa

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

7th century – 15th century CE

16th century CE – present

Southern Africa

7th century – 15th century CE

16th century CE – present

Unplaced or undated kingdoms/sultanates