In computer science, the Actor model and process calculi are two closely related approaches to the modelling of concurrent digital computation. See Actor model and process calculi history. There are many similarities between the two approaches, but also several differences (some philosophical, some technical): The publications on the Actor model and on process calculi have a fair number of cross-references, acknowledgments, and reciprocal citations (see Actor model and process calculi history).

How channels work

Indirect communication using channels (e.g. Gilles Kahn and David MacQueen [1977]) has been an important issue for communication in parallel and concurrent computation affecting both semantics and performance. Some process calculi differ from the Actor model in their use of channels as opposed to direct communication.

Synchronous channels

Synchronous channels have the property that a sender putting a message in the channel must wait for a receiver to get the message out of the channel before the sender can proceed.

Simple synchronous channels

A synchronous channel can be modeled by an Actor that receives and communications. The following is the behavior of an Actor for a simple synchronous channel:

Synchronous channels in process calculi

However, simple synchronous channels do not suffice for process calculi such as Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP) [Hoare 1978 and 1985] because use of the guarded choice (after Dijkstra) command (called the alternative command in CSP). In a guarded choice command multiple offers (called guards) can be made concurrently on multiple channels to and messages; however at most one of the guards can be chosen for each execution of the guarded choice command. Because only one guard can be chosen, a guarded choice command in general effectively requires a kind of two-phase commit protocol or perhaps even a three-phase commit protocol if time-outs are allowed in guards (as in Occam 3 [1992]). Consider the following program written in CSP [Hoare 1978]: [X :: Z!stop || Y :: guard: boolean; guard := true; *[guard → Z!go; Z?guard] || Z :: n: integer; n:= 0; *[X?stop → Y!false; print!n; [] Y?go → n := n+1; Y!true] ] According to Clinger [1981], this program illustrates global nondeterminism, since the nondeterminism arises from incomplete specification of the timing of signals between the three processes, , and. The repetitive guarded command in the definition of has two alternatives: If ever accepts the message from , then terminates. Accepting the causes to be sent false which when input as the value of its guard will cause to terminate. When both and have terminated, terminates because it no longer has live processes providing input. In the above program, there are synchronous channels from to , to , and to.

Analogy with the committee coordination problem

According to Knabe [1992], Chandy and Misra [1988] characterized this as analogous to the committee coordination problem:

A simple distributed protocol

This section presents a simple distributed protocol for channels in synchronous process calculi. The protocol has some problems that are addressed in the sections below. The behavior of a guarded choice command is as follows: The behavior of a guard is as follows: The behavior of a channel is as follows:

Starvation on getting from multiple channels

Again consider the program written in CSP (discussed in Synchronous channels in process calculi above): [X :: Z!stop || Y :: guard: boolean; guard := true; *[guard → Z!go; Z?guard] || Z :: n: integer; n:= 0; *[X?stop → Y!false; print!n; [] Y?go → n := n+1; Y!true] ] As pointed out in Knabe [1992], a problem with the above protocol (A simple distributed protocol) is that the process might never accept the message from (a phenomenon called starvation) and consequently the above program might never print anything. In contrast consider, a simple Actor system that consists of Actors X, Y, Z, and print where By the laws of Actor semantics, the above Actor system will always halt when the Actors X, Y, are Z are each sent a message resulting in sending print a number that can be unbounded large. The difference between the CSP program and the Actor system is that the Actor Z does not get messages using a guarded choice command from multiple channels. Instead it processes messages in arrival ordering, and by the laws for Actor systems, the message is guaranteed to arrive.

Livelock on getting from multiple channels

Consider the following program written in CSP [Hoare 1978]: [Bidder1 :: b: bid; *[Bids1?b → process1!b; [] Bids2?b → process1!b;] || Bidder2 :: b: bid; *[Bids1?b → process2!b; [] Bids2?b → process2!b;] ] As pointed out in Knabe [1992], an issue with the above protocol (A simple distributed protocol) is that the process might never accept a bid from or (a phenomenon called livelock) and consequently might never be sent anything. In each attempt to accept a message, is thwarted because the bid that was offered by or is snatched away by because it turns out that has much faster access than to and. Consequently, can accept a bid, process it and accept another bid before can commit to accepting a bid.

Efficiency

As pointed out in Knabe [1992], an issue with the above protocol (A simple distributed protocol) is the large number of communications that must be sent in order to perform the handshaking in order to send a message through a synchronous channel. Indeed, as shown in the previous section (Livelock), the number of communications can be unbounded.

Summary of Issues

The subsections above have articulated the following three issues concerned with the use of synchronous channels for process calculi: It is notable that in all of the above, issues arise from the use of a guarded choice command to get messages from multiple channels.

Asynchronous channels

Asynchronous channels have the property that a sender putting a message in the channel need not wait for a receiver to get the message out of the channel.

Simple asynchronous channels

An asynchronous channel can be modeled by an Actor that receives and communications. The following is the behavior of an Actor for a simple asynchronous channel:

Asynchronous channels in process calculi

The Join-calculus programming language (published in 1996) implemented local and distributed concurrent computations. It incorporated asynchronous channels as well as a kind of synchronous channel that is used for procedure calls. Agha's Aπ Actor calculus is based on a typed version of the asynchronous π-calculus.

Algebras

The use of algebraic techniques was pioneered in the process calculi. Subsequently, several different process calculi intended to provide algebraic reasoning about Actor systems have been developed in, ,.

Denotational semantics

Will Clinger (building on the work of Irene Greif [1975], Gordon Plotkin [1976], Henry Baker [1978], Michael Smyth [1978], and Francez, Hoare, Lehmann, and de Roever [1979]) published the first satisfactory mathematical denotational theory of the Actor model using domain theory in his dissertation in 1981. His semantics contrasted the unbounded nondeterminism of the Actor model with the bounded nondeterminism of CSP [Hoare 1978] and Concurrent Processes [Milne and Milner 1979] (see denotational semantics). Roscoe [2005] has developed a denotational semantics with unbounded nondeterminism for a subsequent version of Communicating Sequential Processes Hoare [1985]. More recently Carl Hewitt [2006b] developed a denotational semantics for Actors based on timed diagrams. Ugo Montanari and Carolyn Talcott [1998] have contributed to attempting to reconcile Actors with process calculi.