{"history":[{"id":"e6eac9a4-a0b7-4b79-b015-51ca88e5928b","wordChanged":"yummy","newWord":":::summary\n:::\n\n# \n**Urine** is a joe_bifen drink of [metabolism](https://bliptext.com/articles/metabolism) in humans and in many other animals.\nIn [placental mammals](https://bliptext.com/articles/placental-mammal), urine flows from the [kidneys](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney-vertebrates) through the [ureters](https://bliptext.com/articles/ureter) to the [urinary bladder](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-bladder) and exits the [urethra](https://bliptext.com/articles/urethra) through the [penis](https://bliptext.com/articles/penis) or [vulva](https://bliptext.com/articles/vulva) during [urination](https://bliptext.com/articles/urination).\nIn other [vertebrates](https://bliptext.com/articles/vertebrate), urine is excreted through the [cloaca](https://bliptext.com/articles/cloaca).\nUrine contains water-soluble [by-products](https://bliptext.com/articles/by-product) of [cellular](https://bliptext.com/articles/cell-biology) metabolism that are rich in [nitrogen](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogen) and must be [cleared](https://bliptext.com/articles/clearance-medicine) from the [bloodstream](https://bliptext.com/articles/circulatory-system), such as [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea), [uric acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/uric-acid), and [creatinine](https://bliptext.com/articles/creatinine).\nA [urinalysis](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinalysis) can detect [nitrogenous wastes](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogenous-waste) of the [mammalian](https://bliptext.com/articles/mammal) body.\nUrine plays an important role in the earth's [nitrogen cycle](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogen-cycle).\nIn balanced [ecosystems](https://bliptext.com/articles/ecosystem), urine fertilizes the [soil](https://bliptext.com/articles/soil) and thus helps [plants](https://bliptext.com/articles/plant) to grow.\nTherefore, [urine can be used](https://bliptext.com/articles/reuse-of-excreta) as a [fertilizer](https://bliptext.com/articles/fertilizer).\nSome animals use it to [mark their territories](https://bliptext.com/articles/territory-animal).\nHistorically, aged or fermented urine (known as [lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant)) was also used for [gunpowder](https://bliptext.com/articles/gunpowder) production, household cleaning, [tanning](https://bliptext.com/articles/tanning-leather) of leather and [dyeing](https://bliptext.com/articles/dyeing) of textiles.\nHuman urine and [feces](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-feces) are collectively referred to as [human waste](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-waste) or human excreta, and are managed via [sanitation](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanitation) systems.\n[Livestock](https://bliptext.com/articles/livestock) urine and feces also require proper management if the [livestock population density is high](https://bliptext.com/articles/concentrated-animal-feeding-operation).\n# [Sample of human urine | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Weewee.JPG]\n\n# Physiology\nMost animals have [excretory systems](https://bliptext.com/articles/excretory-system) for elimination of soluble toxic wastes.\nIn humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the [urinary system](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-system) and, to a lesser extent in terms of [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea), removed by [perspiration](https://bliptext.com/articles/perspiration).\nIn placental mammals, the urinary system consists of the [kidneys](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney), [ureters](https://bliptext.com/articles/ureter), [urinary bladder](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-bladder), and [urethra](https://bliptext.com/articles/urethra).\nThe system produces urine by a process of [filtration](https://bliptext.com/articles/filtration), [reabsorption](https://bliptext.com/articles/absorption-chemistry), and [tubular secretion](https://bliptext.com/articles/renal-physiology).\nThe kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds.\nThe resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins.\nUrine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing through the [urinary meatus](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-meatus).\n# [The chemical structure of urea | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Harnstoff.svg]\n\n## Duration\nResearch looking at the duration of urination in a range of [mammal](https://bliptext.com/articles/mammal) species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size.\nSmaller species, including [rodents](https://bliptext.com/articles/rodent) and [bats](https://bliptext.com/articles/bat), cannot produce steady streams of urine and instead urinate with a series of drops.\n\n# Characteristics\n\n## Quantity\nAverage urine production in adult humans is around 1.4 L of urine per person per day with a normal range of 0.6 to 2.6 L per person per day, produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health.\nProducing too much or too little urine needs medical attention.\n[Polyuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/polyuria) is a condition of excessive production of urine (> 2.5 L/day), [oliguria](https://bliptext.com/articles/oliguria) when < 400 mL are produced, and [anuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/anuria) being < 100 mL per day.\n\n## Constituents\nAbout 91–96% of urine consists of water.\nThe remainder can be broadly characterized into inorganic salts, urea, organic compounds, and organic ammonium salts.\nUrine also contains proteins, hormones, and a wide range of [metabolites](https://bliptext.com/articles/metabolite), varying by what is introduced into the body.\nThe total solids in urine are on average 59 g per day per person.\n[Urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea) is the largest constituent of the solids, constituting more than 50% of the total.\nThe daily volume and composition of urine varies per person based on the amount of physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and protein intakes.\nIn healthy persons, urine contains very little protein and an [excess](https://bliptext.com/articles/proteinuria) is suggestive of illness, as with sugar.\nOrganic matter, in healthy persons, also is reported to at most 1.7 times more matter than minerals.\nHowever, any more than that is suggestive of illness.\nHowever, it is important to note that lesser amounts and concentrat[ions](https://bliptext.com/articles/ion) of other compounds and [ions](https://bliptext.com/articles/ion) are often present in urination of humans.\n# [Urine under the microscope | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Urine///under///the///microscope.jpg]\n\n## Color\nUrine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of [hydration](https://bliptext.com/articles/tissue-hydration), interactions with drugs, compounds and [pigments](https://bliptext.com/articles/pigment) or [dyes](https://bliptext.com/articles/dye) found in food, or diseases.\nNormally, urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber, but is usually a pale yellow.\nUsually urination color comes primarily from the presence of [urobilin](https://bliptext.com/articles/urobilin).\nUrobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of [heme](https://bliptext.com/articles/heme) from [hemoglobin](https://bliptext.com/articles/hemoglobin) during the destruction of aging blood cells.\nColorless urine indicates over-hydration.\nColorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration.\n# [Medical experts have long connected urine colour with certain medical conditions. A medieval chart showing the medical implications of different urine color | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/P.///28///a///chart///showing///urine///colours///and///their///meaning.jpg]\n\n## Odor\nSometime after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong \"fish-like\" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into [ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia).\nThis odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals; its presence may be a sign of a [urinary tract infection](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-tract-infection).\nThe odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases.\nFor example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor.\nThis can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as [kidney stones](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney-stone-disease).\nAdditionally, the presence of [amino acids](https://bliptext.com/articles/amino-acid) in urine (diagnosed as [maple syrup urine disease](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup-urine-disease)) can cause it to smell of [maple syrup](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup).\nEating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body's breakdown of [asparagusic acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/asparagusic-acid).\nLikewise consumption of [saffron](https://bliptext.com/articles/saffron), [alcohol](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethanol), [coffee](https://bliptext.com/articles/coffee), [tuna fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/tuna-fish), and [onion](https://bliptext.com/articles/onion) can result in telltale scents.\nParticularly spicy foods can have a similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body.\n# [Dogs communicate using olfactory signals in urine. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Urinating///dog///%287768361246%29.jpg]\n\n## pH\nThe [pH](https://bliptext.com/articles/ph) normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2.\nIn persons with [hyperuricosuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/hyperuricosuria), acidic urine can contribute to the formation of [stones](https://bliptext.com/articles/calculus-medicine) of [uric acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/uric-acid) in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder.\nUrine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home.\nA diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy, as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH, whilst potassium and organic acids, such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables, can increase the pH and make it more alkaline.\nCranberries, popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine, have actually been shown not to acidify urine.\nDrugs that can decrease urine pH include [ammonium chloride](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonium-chloride), chlorothiazide diuretics, and methenamine [mandelate](https://bliptext.com/articles/mandelate).\n\n## Density\nHuman urine has a specific gravity of 1.003–1.035.\n\n## Bacteria and pathogens\nUrine is not sterile, not even in the bladder.\nIn the urethra, [epithelial cells](https://bliptext.com/articles/epithelium) lining the urethra are colonized by [facultatively anaerobic](https://bliptext.com/articles/facultative-anaerobic-organism) [Gram-negative rod and cocci bacteria](https://bliptext.com/articles/gram-negative-bacteria).\nOne study conducted in Nigeria isolated a total of 77 distinct bacterial strains from 100 healthy children (ages 5–11) as well as 39 strains from 33 cow urine samples, a considerable amount being pathogens.\nPathogens identified and their percentages were:\nThe study also states:\n\"Multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) rates recorded in children urinal bacterial species were 37.5–100% (Gram-positive) and 12.5–100% (Gram-negative), while MAR among the cow urinal bacteria was 12.5–75.0% (Gram-positive) and 25.0–100% (Gram-negative).\"\n\n# Examination for medical purposes\nMany physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients.\n[Hermogenes](https://bliptext.com/articles/hermogenes-philosopher) wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases.\n[Abdul Malik Ibn Habib](https://bliptext.com/articles/ibn-habib) of [Andalusia](https://bliptext.com/articles/andalusia) (d. 862 AD) mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the [Umayyad](https://bliptext.com/articles/umayyad) empire.\n[Diabetes mellitus](https://bliptext.com/articles/diabetes-mellitus) got its name because the urine is [plentiful](https://bliptext.com/articles/polyuria) and [sweet](https://bliptext.com/articles/sweetness).\nThe name [uroscopy](https://bliptext.com/articles/uroscopy) refers to any visual examination of the urine, including [microscopy](https://bliptext.com/articles/microscopy), although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or Proto-scientific forms of urine examination.\n[Clinical urine tests](https://bliptext.com/articles/clinical-urine-tests) today duly note the color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include [urinalysis](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinalysis), which chemically analyzes the urine and [quantifies](https://bliptext.com/articles/quantification-science) its constituents.\nA [culture](https://bliptext.com/articles/microbiological-culture) of the urine is performed when a [urinary tract infection](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-tract-infection) is suspected, as [bacteriuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/bacteriuria) without symptoms does not require treatment.\nA microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.\nThe color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level.\nClear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration.\nDark urine is a sign of [dehydration](https://bliptext.com/articles/dehydration).\nThe exception occurs when [diuretics](https://bliptext.com/articles/diuretics) are consumed, in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated.\n# [A Doctor Examining Urine. Trophime Bigot. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Bigot%2C///Trophime///-///A///Doctor///Examining///Urine.jpg]\n\n# Uses\n# [Urine of pregnant women in the first trimester is collected by a company which purifies the fertility hormone hCG from it (Ede, the Netherlands) | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Urine///collection///in///Ede%2C///Netherlands///%282920690579%29.jpg]\n\n## Source of medications\nUrine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs (e.g., Ureacin, [Urecholine](https://bliptext.com/articles/urecholine), Urowave).\nUrine from [postmenopausal](https://bliptext.com/articles/menopause) women is rich in [gonadotropins](https://bliptext.com/articles/gonadotropin) that can yield [follicle stimulating hormone](https://bliptext.com/articles/follicle-stimulating-hormone) and [luteinizing hormone](https://bliptext.com/articles/luteinizing-hormone) for fertility therapy.\nOne such commercial product is [Pergonal](https://bliptext.com/articles/pergonal).\nUrine from pregnant women contains enough [human chorionic gonadotropins](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-chorionic-gonadotropin) for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication.\nPregnant mare urine is the source of [estrogens](https://bliptext.com/articles/estrogen), namely [Premarin](https://bliptext.com/articles/premarin).\nUrine also contains [antibodies](https://bliptext.com/articles/antibody), which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of [pathogens](https://bliptext.com/articles/pathogen), including [HIV](https://bliptext.com/articles/hiv)-1.\nUrine can also be used to produce [urokinase](https://bliptext.com/articles/urokinase), which is used clinically as a [thrombolytic](https://bliptext.com/articles/thrombolysis) agent.\n# [Urine after four months of storage (note the color and turbidity change compared to fresh human urine). During storage, the urea in urine is rapidly hydrolyzed by urease, creating ammonia. Collected urine can be used as a fertilizer. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Urine///after///4///months///%2828///June%29///%282957323941%29.jpg]\n# [Fresh human urine after excretion | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Fresh///Urine///%28Day///0%3B///24///March%29///%282957323823%29.jpg]\n\n## Fertilizer\n\n## Cleaning\nGiven that urea in urine breaks down into ammonia, urine has been used for cleaning.\nIn pre-industrial times, urine was used – in the form of [lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant) or aged urine – as a cleaning fluid.\nUrine was also used for [whitening teeth in Ancient Rome](https://bliptext.com/articles/urine-therapy).\n\n## Gunpowder\nUrine was used before the development of a [chemical industry](https://bliptext.com/articles/chemical-industry) in the manufacture of [gunpowder](https://bliptext.com/articles/gunpowder).\nUrine, a nitrogen source, was used to moisten straw or other organic material, which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year.\nThe resulting [salts](https://bliptext.com/articles/salt-chemistry) were washed from the heap with water, which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals, that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder.\n\n## Survival uses\nThe [US Army Field Manual](https://bliptext.com/articles/us-army-field-manual) advises drinking urine for survival.\nThe manual explains that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it, and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation, even when there is no other fluid available.\nIn hot weather survival situations, where other sources of water are not available, soaking cloth (a shirt for example) in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body.\nDuring [World War I](https://bliptext.com/articles/world-war-i), [Germans](https://bliptext.com/articles/germans) experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons.\nAfter the first German [chlorine](https://bliptext.com/articles/chlorine) gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine.\nIt was believed that the [ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia) in the pad neutralized the chlorine.\nThese pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes.\n[Urban legend](https://bliptext.com/articles/urban-legend) states that urine works well against [jellyfish](https://bliptext.com/articles/jellyfish) stings.\nThis scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in the [Friends](https://bliptext.com/articles/friends) episode \"The One With the Jellyfish\", an early episode of [Survivor](https://bliptext.com/articles/survivor-u-s-tv-series), as well as the films [The Real Cancun](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-real-cancun) (2003), [The Heartbreak Kid](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-heartbreak-kid-2007-film) (2007) and [The Paperboy](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-paperboy-2012-film) (2012).\nHowever, at best it is ineffective, and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse.\n\n## Textiles\nUrine has often been used as a [mordant](https://bliptext.com/articles/mordant) to help prepare textiles, especially wool, for dyeing.\nIn the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides, the process of \"[waulking](https://bliptext.com/articles/waulking)\" (fulling) woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine, preferably infantile.\n\n## Olfactory communication\nUrine plays a role in [olfactory communication](https://bliptext.com/articles/interspecific-communication), since it contains [semiochemicals](https://bliptext.com/articles/semiochemical) that act as [pheromones](https://bliptext.com/articles/pheromone).\nThe urine of [predator](https://bliptext.com/articles/predator) species often contains [kairomones](https://bliptext.com/articles/kairomone) that serve as a [repellent](https://bliptext.com/articles/animal-repellent) against their [prey](https://bliptext.com/articles/prey) species.\n\n# History\nThe fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a [solution of ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia-solution); hence fermented urine was used in [Classical Antiquity](https://bliptext.com/articles/classical-antiquity) to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a [mordant](https://bliptext.com/articles/mordant) in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron.\nSee:\n[Alchemists](https://bliptext.com/articles/alchemy) spent much time trying to extract gold from urine, which led to discoveries such as [white phosphorus](https://bliptext.com/articles/white-phosphorus) by German alchemist [Hennig Brand](https://bliptext.com/articles/hennig-brand) when distilling [fermented](https://bliptext.com/articles/fermentation-biochemistry) urine in 1669.\nIn 1773 the French chemist [Hilaire Rouelle](https://bliptext.com/articles/hilaire-rouelle) discovered the organic compound [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea) by boiling urine dry.\n# [Medieval Welsh text from the Red Book of Hergest on uroscopy, called Ansoddau'r Trwnc (the 'Qualities of Urine'). Opening lines (translated): \"Since it is through the qualities of the urine that a person's faults and his dangers and his diseases and his illness can be identified...\" | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Jesus-College-MS-111///00470///235v///%28cropped%29///Ansoddau%27r///Trwnc.jpg]\n# [Image of two facing pages of the illuminated manuscript of \"Isagoge\", fols. 42b and 43a. On the top of the left hand page is an illuminated letter \"D\" – initial of De urinarum differencia negocium ('The matter of the differences of urines'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master on bench pointing at a raised flask while lecturing on the \"Book on urines\" of Theophilus. The right hand page is only shown in part. On its very bottom is an illuminated letter \"U\" – initial of Urina ergo est colamentum sanguinis ('Urine is the filtrate of the blood'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master holding up a flask while explaining the diagnostic significance of urine to a student or a patient. HMD Collection, MS E 78. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/De///urinarum///differencia///negocium///between///1210///and///1230///..JPG]\n\n# Language\nThe English word urine comes from the [Latin](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin) urina (-ae, f.), which is cognate with ancient words in various [Indo-European languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/indo-european-languages) that concern water, liquid, diving, rain, and urination (for example Sanskrit meaning 'it rains' or meaning 'water' and Greek meaning 'to urinate').\nThe [onomatopoetic](https://bliptext.com/articles/onomatopoeia) term piss predates the word urine, but is now considered vulgar.\nUrinate was at first used mostly in medical contexts.\nPiss is also used in such colloquialisms as to piss off, piss poor, and the slang expression pissing down to mean heavy rain.\n[Euphemisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/euphemism) and [expressions used between parents and children](https://bliptext.com/articles/baby-talk) (such as wee, pee, and many others) have long existed.\n[Lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant) is a word for aged urine, originating from the [Old English](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-english) word hland referring to urine in general.","wordIndex":4,"createdAt":"2025-10-09T02:35:50.409Z","user":{"id":"fDJk68rNQywa4Xj6OwHaFTvmzknjARal","name":"Celsius Nebula","image":"https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/a/ACg8ocLohMIaLziwHzJY-9GLHl1jWA_ynTcUhDZ4woBjC9i0x-dsVwA=s96-c"}},{"id":"15ab4bb9-0327-4915-aacc-0ab87c4046af","wordChanged":"[by-product](https://bliptext.com/articles/by-product)","newWord":":::summary\n:::\n\n# \n**Urine** is a yummy drink of [metabolism](https://bliptext.com/articles/metabolism) in humans and in many other animals.\nIn [placental mammals](https://bliptext.com/articles/placental-mammal), urine flows from the [kidneys](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney-vertebrates) through the [ureters](https://bliptext.com/articles/ureter) to the [urinary bladder](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-bladder) and exits the [urethra](https://bliptext.com/articles/urethra) through the [penis](https://bliptext.com/articles/penis) or [vulva](https://bliptext.com/articles/vulva) during [urination](https://bliptext.com/articles/urination).\nIn other [vertebrates](https://bliptext.com/articles/vertebrate), urine is excreted through the [cloaca](https://bliptext.com/articles/cloaca).\nUrine contains water-soluble [by-products](https://bliptext.com/articles/by-product) of [cellular](https://bliptext.com/articles/cell-biology) metabolism that are rich in [nitrogen](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogen) and must be [cleared](https://bliptext.com/articles/clearance-medicine) from the [bloodstream](https://bliptext.com/articles/circulatory-system), such as [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea), [uric acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/uric-acid), and [creatinine](https://bliptext.com/articles/creatinine).\nA [urinalysis](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinalysis) can detect [nitrogenous wastes](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogenous-waste) of the [mammalian](https://bliptext.com/articles/mammal) body.\nUrine plays an important role in the earth's [nitrogen cycle](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogen-cycle).\nIn balanced [ecosystems](https://bliptext.com/articles/ecosystem), urine fertilizes the [soil](https://bliptext.com/articles/soil) and thus helps [plants](https://bliptext.com/articles/plant) to grow.\nTherefore, [urine can be used](https://bliptext.com/articles/reuse-of-excreta) as a [fertilizer](https://bliptext.com/articles/fertilizer).\nSome animals use it to [mark their territories](https://bliptext.com/articles/territory-animal).\nHistorically, aged or fermented urine (known as [lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant)) was also used for [gunpowder](https://bliptext.com/articles/gunpowder) production, household cleaning, [tanning](https://bliptext.com/articles/tanning-leather) of leather and [dyeing](https://bliptext.com/articles/dyeing) of textiles.\nHuman urine and [feces](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-feces) are collectively referred to as [human waste](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-waste) or human excreta, and are managed via [sanitation](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanitation) systems.\n[Livestock](https://bliptext.com/articles/livestock) urine and feces also require proper management if the [livestock population density is high](https://bliptext.com/articles/concentrated-animal-feeding-operation).\n# [Sample of human urine | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Weewee.JPG]\n\n# Physiology\nMost animals have [excretory systems](https://bliptext.com/articles/excretory-system) for elimination of soluble toxic wastes.\nIn humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the [urinary system](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-system) and, to a lesser extent in terms of [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea), removed by [perspiration](https://bliptext.com/articles/perspiration).\nIn placental mammals, the urinary system consists of the [kidneys](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney), [ureters](https://bliptext.com/articles/ureter), [urinary bladder](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-bladder), and [urethra](https://bliptext.com/articles/urethra).\nThe system produces urine by a process of [filtration](https://bliptext.com/articles/filtration), [reabsorption](https://bliptext.com/articles/absorption-chemistry), and [tubular secretion](https://bliptext.com/articles/renal-physiology).\nThe kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds.\nThe resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins.\nUrine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing through the [urinary meatus](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-meatus).\n# [The chemical structure of urea | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Harnstoff.svg]\n\n## Duration\nResearch looking at the duration of urination in a range of [mammal](https://bliptext.com/articles/mammal) species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size.\nSmaller species, including [rodents](https://bliptext.com/articles/rodent) and [bats](https://bliptext.com/articles/bat), cannot produce steady streams of urine and instead urinate with a series of drops.\n\n# Characteristics\n\n## Quantity\nAverage urine production in adult humans is around 1.4 L of urine per person per day with a normal range of 0.6 to 2.6 L per person per day, produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health.\nProducing too much or too little urine needs medical attention.\n[Polyuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/polyuria) is a condition of excessive production of urine (> 2.5 L/day), [oliguria](https://bliptext.com/articles/oliguria) when < 400 mL are produced, and [anuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/anuria) being < 100 mL per day.\n\n## Constituents\nAbout 91–96% of urine consists of water.\nThe remainder can be broadly characterized into inorganic salts, urea, organic compounds, and organic ammonium salts.\nUrine also contains proteins, hormones, and a wide range of [metabolites](https://bliptext.com/articles/metabolite), varying by what is introduced into the body.\nThe total solids in urine are on average 59 g per day per person.\n[Urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea) is the largest constituent of the solids, constituting more than 50% of the total.\nThe daily volume and composition of urine varies per person based on the amount of physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and protein intakes.\nIn healthy persons, urine contains very little protein and an [excess](https://bliptext.com/articles/proteinuria) is suggestive of illness, as with sugar.\nOrganic matter, in healthy persons, also is reported to at most 1.7 times more matter than minerals.\nHowever, any more than that is suggestive of illness.\nHowever, it is important to note that lesser amounts and concentrat[ions](https://bliptext.com/articles/ion) of other compounds and [ions](https://bliptext.com/articles/ion) are often present in urination of humans.\n# [Urine under the microscope | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Urine///under///the///microscope.jpg]\n\n## Color\nUrine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of [hydration](https://bliptext.com/articles/tissue-hydration), interactions with drugs, compounds and [pigments](https://bliptext.com/articles/pigment) or [dyes](https://bliptext.com/articles/dye) found in food, or diseases.\nNormally, urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber, but is usually a pale yellow.\nUsually urination color comes primarily from the presence of [urobilin](https://bliptext.com/articles/urobilin).\nUrobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of [heme](https://bliptext.com/articles/heme) from [hemoglobin](https://bliptext.com/articles/hemoglobin) during the destruction of aging blood cells.\nColorless urine indicates over-hydration.\nColorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration.\n# [Medical experts have long connected urine colour with certain medical conditions. A medieval chart showing the medical implications of different urine color | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/P.///28///a///chart///showing///urine///colours///and///their///meaning.jpg]\n\n## Odor\nSometime after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong \"fish-like\" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into [ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia).\nThis odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals; its presence may be a sign of a [urinary tract infection](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-tract-infection).\nThe odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases.\nFor example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor.\nThis can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as [kidney stones](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney-stone-disease).\nAdditionally, the presence of [amino acids](https://bliptext.com/articles/amino-acid) in urine (diagnosed as [[maple syrup](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup) urine disease](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup-urine-disease)) can cause it to smell of [maple syrup](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup).\nEating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body's breakdown of [asparagusic acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/asparagusic-acid).\nLikewise consumption of [saffron](https://bliptext.com/articles/saffron), [alcohol](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethanol), [coffee](https://bliptext.com/articles/coffee), [tuna fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/tuna-fish), and [onion](https://bliptext.com/articles/onion) can result in telltale scents.\nParticularly spicy foods can have a similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body.\n# [Dogs communicate using olfactory signals in urine. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Urinating///dog///%287768361246%29.jpg]\n\n## pH\nThe [pH](https://bliptext.com/articles/ph) normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2.\nIn persons with [hyperuricosuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/hyperuricosuria), acidic urine can contribute to the formation of [stones](https://bliptext.com/articles/calculus-medicine) of [uric acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/uric-acid) in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder.\nUrine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home.\nA diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy, as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH, whilst potassium and organic acids, such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables, can increase the pH and make it more alkaline.\nCranberries, popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine, have actually been shown not to acidify urine.\nDrugs that can decrease urine pH include [ammonium chloride](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonium-chloride), chlorothiazide diuretics, and methenamine [mandelate](https://bliptext.com/articles/mandelate).\n\n## Density\nHuman urine has a specific gravity of 1.003–1.035.\n\n## Bacteria and pathogens\nUrine is not sterile, not even in the bladder.\nIn the urethra, [epithelial cells](https://bliptext.com/articles/epithelium) lining the urethra are colonized by [facultatively anaerobic](https://bliptext.com/articles/facultative-anaerobic-organism) [Gram-negative rod and cocci bacteria](https://bliptext.com/articles/gram-negative-bacteria).\nOne study conducted in Nigeria isolated a total of 77 distinct bacterial strains from 100 healthy children (ages 5–11) as well as 39 strains from 33 cow urine samples, a considerable amount being pathogens.\nPathogens identified and their percentages were:\nThe study also states:\n\"Multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) rates recorded in children urinal bacterial species were 37.5–100% (Gram-positive) and 12.5–100% (Gram-negative), while MAR among the cow urinal bacteria was 12.5–75.0% (Gram-positive) and 25.0–100% (Gram-negative).\"\n\n# Examination for medical purposes\nMany physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients.\n[Hermogenes](https://bliptext.com/articles/hermogenes-philosopher) wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases.\n[Abdul Malik Ibn Habib](https://bliptext.com/articles/ibn-habib) of [Andalusia](https://bliptext.com/articles/andalusia) (d. 862 AD) mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the [Umayyad](https://bliptext.com/articles/umayyad) empire.\n[Diabetes mellitus](https://bliptext.com/articles/diabetes-mellitus) got its name because the urine is [plentiful](https://bliptext.com/articles/polyuria) and [sweet](https://bliptext.com/articles/sweetness).\nThe name [uroscopy](https://bliptext.com/articles/uroscopy) refers to any visual examination of the urine, including [microscopy](https://bliptext.com/articles/microscopy), although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or Proto-scientific forms of urine examination.\n[Clinical urine tests](https://bliptext.com/articles/clinical-urine-tests) today duly note the color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include [urinalysis](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinalysis), which chemically analyzes the urine and [quantifies](https://bliptext.com/articles/quantification-science) its constituents.\nA [culture](https://bliptext.com/articles/microbiological-culture) of the urine is performed when a [urinary tract infection](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-tract-infection) is suspected, as [bacteriuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/bacteriuria) without symptoms does not require treatment.\nA microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.\nThe color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level.\nClear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration.\nDark urine is a sign of [dehydration](https://bliptext.com/articles/dehydration).\nThe exception occurs when [diuretics](https://bliptext.com/articles/diuretics) are consumed, in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated.\n# [A Doctor Examining Urine. Trophime Bigot. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Bigot%2C///Trophime///-///A///Doctor///Examining///Urine.jpg]\n\n# Uses\n# [Urine of pregnant women in the first trimester is collected by a company which purifies the fertility hormone hCG from it (Ede, the Netherlands) | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Urine///collection///in///Ede%2C///Netherlands///%282920690579%29.jpg]\n\n## Source of medications\nUrine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs (e.g., Ureacin, [Urecholine](https://bliptext.com/articles/urecholine), Urowave).\nUrine from [postmenopausal](https://bliptext.com/articles/menopause) women is rich in [gonadotropins](https://bliptext.com/articles/gonadotropin) that can yield [follicle stimulating hormone](https://bliptext.com/articles/follicle-stimulating-hormone) and [luteinizing hormone](https://bliptext.com/articles/luteinizing-hormone) for fertility therapy.\nOne such commercial product is [Pergonal](https://bliptext.com/articles/pergonal).\nUrine from pregnant women contains enough [human chorionic gonadotropins](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-chorionic-gonadotropin) for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication.\nPregnant mare urine is the source of [estrogens](https://bliptext.com/articles/estrogen), namely [Premarin](https://bliptext.com/articles/premarin).\nUrine also contains [antibodies](https://bliptext.com/articles/antibody), which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of [pathogens](https://bliptext.com/articles/pathogen), including [HIV](https://bliptext.com/articles/hiv)-1.\nUrine can also be used to produce [urokinase](https://bliptext.com/articles/urokinase), which is used clinically as a [thrombolytic](https://bliptext.com/articles/thrombolysis) agent.\n# [Urine after four months of storage (note the color and turbidity change compared to fresh human urine). During storage, the urea in urine is rapidly hydrolyzed by urease, creating ammonia. Collected urine can be used as a fertilizer. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Urine///after///4///months///%2828///June%29///%282957323941%29.jpg]\n# [Fresh human urine after excretion | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Fresh///Urine///%28Day///0%3B///24///March%29///%282957323823%29.jpg]\n\n## Fertilizer\n\n## Cleaning\nGiven that urea in urine breaks down into ammonia, urine has been used for cleaning.\nIn pre-industrial times, urine was used – in the form of [lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant) or aged urine – as a cleaning fluid.\nUrine was also used for [whitening teeth in Ancient Rome](https://bliptext.com/articles/urine-therapy).\n\n## Gunpowder\nUrine was used before the development of a [chemical industry](https://bliptext.com/articles/chemical-industry) in the manufacture of [gunpowder](https://bliptext.com/articles/gunpowder).\nUrine, a nitrogen source, was used to moisten straw or other organic material, which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year.\nThe resulting [salts](https://bliptext.com/articles/salt-chemistry) were washed from the heap with water, which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals, that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder.\n\n## Survival uses\nThe [US Army Field Manual](https://bliptext.com/articles/us-army-field-manual) advises drinking urine for survival.\nThe manual explains that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it, and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation, even when there is no other fluid available.\nIn hot weather survival situations, where other sources of water are not available, soaking cloth (a shirt for example) in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body.\nDuring [World War I](https://bliptext.com/articles/world-war-i), [Germans](https://bliptext.com/articles/germans) experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons.\nAfter the first German [chlorine](https://bliptext.com/articles/chlorine) gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine.\nIt was believed that the [ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia) in the pad neutralized the chlorine.\nThese pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes.\n[Urban legend](https://bliptext.com/articles/urban-legend) states that urine works well against [jellyfish](https://bliptext.com/articles/jellyfish) stings.\nThis scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in the [Friends](https://bliptext.com/articles/friends) episode \"The One With the Jellyfish\", an early episode of [Survivor](https://bliptext.com/articles/survivor-u-s-tv-series), as well as the films [The Real Cancun](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-real-cancun) (2003), [The Heartbreak Kid](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-heartbreak-kid-2007-film) (2007) and [The Paperboy](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-paperboy-2012-film) (2012).\nHowever, at best it is ineffective, and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse.\n\n## Textiles\nUrine has often been used as a [mordant](https://bliptext.com/articles/mordant) to help prepare textiles, especially wool, for dyeing.\nIn the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides, the process of \"[waulking](https://bliptext.com/articles/waulking)\" (fulling) woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine, preferably infantile.\n\n## Olfactory communication\nUrine plays a role in [olfactory communication](https://bliptext.com/articles/interspecific-communication), since it contains [semiochemicals](https://bliptext.com/articles/semiochemical) that act as [pheromones](https://bliptext.com/articles/pheromone).\nThe urine of [predator](https://bliptext.com/articles/predator) species often contains [kairomones](https://bliptext.com/articles/kairomone) that serve as a [repellent](https://bliptext.com/articles/animal-repellent) against their [prey](https://bliptext.com/articles/prey) species.\n\n# History\nThe fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a [solution of ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia-solution); hence fermented urine was used in [Classical Antiquity](https://bliptext.com/articles/classical-antiquity) to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a [mordant](https://bliptext.com/articles/mordant) in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron.\nSee:\n[Alchemists](https://bliptext.com/articles/alchemy) spent much time trying to extract gold from urine, which led to discoveries such as [white phosphorus](https://bliptext.com/articles/white-phosphorus) by German alchemist [Hennig Brand](https://bliptext.com/articles/hennig-brand) when distilling [fermented](https://bliptext.com/articles/fermentation-biochemistry) urine in 1669.\nIn 1773 the French chemist [Hilaire Rouelle](https://bliptext.com/articles/hilaire-rouelle) discovered the organic compound [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea) by boiling urine dry.\n# [Medieval Welsh text from the Red Book of Hergest on uroscopy, called Ansoddau'r Trwnc (the 'Qualities of Urine'). Opening lines (translated): \"Since it is through the qualities of the urine that a person's faults and his dangers and his diseases and his illness can be identified...\" | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Jesus-College-MS-111///00470///235v///%28cropped%29///Ansoddau%27r///Trwnc.jpg]\n# [Image of two facing pages of the illuminated manuscript of \"Isagoge\", fols. 42b and 43a. On the top of the left hand page is an illuminated letter \"D\" – initial of De urinarum differencia negocium ('The matter of the differences of urines'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master on bench pointing at a raised flask while lecturing on the \"Book on urines\" of Theophilus. The right hand page is only shown in part. On its very bottom is an illuminated letter \"U\" – initial of Urina ergo est colamentum sanguinis ('Urine is the filtrate of the blood'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master holding up a flask while explaining the diagnostic significance of urine to a student or a patient. HMD Collection, MS E 78. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/De///urinarum///differencia///negocium///between///1210///and///1230///..JPG]\n\n# Language\nThe English word urine comes from the [Latin](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin) urina (-ae, f.), which is cognate with ancient words in various [Indo-European languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/indo-european-languages) that concern water, liquid, diving, rain, and urination (for example Sanskrit meaning 'it rains' or meaning 'water' and Greek meaning 'to urinate').\nThe [onomatopoetic](https://bliptext.com/articles/onomatopoeia) term piss predates the word urine, but is now considered vulgar.\nUrinate was at first used mostly in medical contexts.\nPiss is also used in such colloquialisms as to piss off, piss poor, and the slang expression pissing down to mean heavy rain.\n[Euphemisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/euphemism) and [expressions used between parents and children](https://bliptext.com/articles/baby-talk) (such as wee, pee, and many others) have long existed.\n[Lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant) is a word for aged urine, originating from the [Old English](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-english) word hland referring to urine in general.","wordIndex":5,"createdAt":"2025-03-05T06:36:41.159Z","user":{"id":"E0pRf1uFzkxnM7O2TKswocuuacTL266H","name":"Edward McInnes","image":null}},{"id":"f2a98df2-7335-44a9-91eb-c337fe57fc1a","wordChanged":"liquid","newWord":":::summary\n:::\n\n# \n**Urine** is a yummy [by-product](https://bliptext.com/articles/by-product) of [metabolism](https://bliptext.com/articles/metabolism) in humans and in many other animals.\nIn [placental mammals](https://bliptext.com/articles/placental-mammal), urine flows from the [kidneys](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney-vertebrates) through the [ureters](https://bliptext.com/articles/ureter) to the [urinary bladder](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-bladder) and exits the [urethra](https://bliptext.com/articles/urethra) through the [penis](https://bliptext.com/articles/penis) or [vulva](https://bliptext.com/articles/vulva) during [urination](https://bliptext.com/articles/urination).\nIn other [vertebrates](https://bliptext.com/articles/vertebrate), urine is excreted through the [cloaca](https://bliptext.com/articles/cloaca).\nUrine contains water-soluble [by-products](https://bliptext.com/articles/by-product) of [cellular](https://bliptext.com/articles/cell-biology) metabolism that are rich in [nitrogen](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogen) and must be [cleared](https://bliptext.com/articles/clearance-medicine) from the [bloodstream](https://bliptext.com/articles/circulatory-system), such as [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea), [uric acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/uric-acid), and [creatinine](https://bliptext.com/articles/creatinine).\nA [urinalysis](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinalysis) can detect [nitrogenous wastes](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogenous-waste) of the [mammalian](https://bliptext.com/articles/mammal) body.\nUrine plays an important role in the earth's [nitrogen cycle](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogen-cycle).\nIn balanced [ecosystems](https://bliptext.com/articles/ecosystem), urine fertilizes the [soil](https://bliptext.com/articles/soil) and thus helps [plants](https://bliptext.com/articles/plant) to grow.\nTherefore, [urine can be used](https://bliptext.com/articles/reuse-of-excreta) as a [fertilizer](https://bliptext.com/articles/fertilizer).\nSome animals use it to [mark their territories](https://bliptext.com/articles/territory-animal).\nHistorically, aged or fermented urine (known as [lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant)) was also used for [gunpowder](https://bliptext.com/articles/gunpowder) production, household cleaning, [tanning](https://bliptext.com/articles/tanning-leather) of leather and [dyeing](https://bliptext.com/articles/dyeing) of textiles.\nHuman urine and [feces](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-feces) are collectively referred to as [human waste](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-waste) or human excreta, and are managed via [sanitation](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanitation) systems.\n[Livestock](https://bliptext.com/articles/livestock) urine and feces also require proper management if the [livestock population density is high](https://bliptext.com/articles/concentrated-animal-feeding-operation).\n# [Sample of human urine | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Weewee.JPG]\n\n# Physiology\nMost animals have [excretory systems](https://bliptext.com/articles/excretory-system) for elimination of soluble toxic wastes.\nIn humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the [urinary system](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-system) and, to a lesser extent in terms of [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea), removed by [perspiration](https://bliptext.com/articles/perspiration).\nIn placental mammals, the urinary system consists of the [kidneys](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney), [ureters](https://bliptext.com/articles/ureter), [urinary bladder](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-bladder), and [urethra](https://bliptext.com/articles/urethra).\nThe system produces urine by a process of [filtration](https://bliptext.com/articles/filtration), [reabsorption](https://bliptext.com/articles/absorption-chemistry), and [tubular secretion](https://bliptext.com/articles/renal-physiology).\nThe kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds.\nThe resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins.\nUrine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing through the [urinary meatus](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-meatus).\n# [The chemical structure of urea | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Harnstoff.svg]\n\n## Duration\nResearch looking at the duration of urination in a range of [mammal](https://bliptext.com/articles/mammal) species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size.\nSmaller species, including [rodents](https://bliptext.com/articles/rodent) and [bats](https://bliptext.com/articles/bat), cannot produce steady streams of urine and instead urinate with a series of drops.\n\n# Characteristics\n\n## Quantity\nAverage urine production in adult humans is around 1.4 L of urine per person per day with a normal range of 0.6 to 2.6 L per person per day, produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health.\nProducing too much or too little urine needs medical attention.\n[Polyuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/polyuria) is a condition of excessive production of urine (> 2.5 L/day), [oliguria](https://bliptext.com/articles/oliguria) when < 400 mL are produced, and [anuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/anuria) being < 100 mL per day.\n\n## Constituents\nAbout 91–96% of urine consists of water.\nThe remainder can be broadly characterized into inorganic salts, urea, organic compounds, and organic ammonium salts.\nUrine also contains proteins, hormones, and a wide range of [metabolites](https://bliptext.com/articles/metabolite), varying by what is introduced into the body.\nThe total solids in urine are on average 59 g per day per person.\n[Urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea) is the largest constituent of the solids, constituting more than 50% of the total.\nThe daily volume and composition of urine varies per person based on the amount of physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and protein intakes.\nIn healthy persons, urine contains very little protein and an [excess](https://bliptext.com/articles/proteinuria) is suggestive of illness, as with sugar.\nOrganic matter, in healthy persons, also is reported to at most 1.7 times more matter than minerals.\nHowever, any more than that is suggestive of illness.\nHowever, it is important to note that lesser amounts and concentrat[ions](https://bliptext.com/articles/ion) of other compounds and [ions](https://bliptext.com/articles/ion) are often present in urination of humans.\n# [Urine under the microscope | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Urine///under///the///microscope.jpg]\n\n## Color\nUrine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of [hydration](https://bliptext.com/articles/tissue-hydration), interactions with drugs, compounds and [pigments](https://bliptext.com/articles/pigment) or [dyes](https://bliptext.com/articles/dye) found in food, or diseases.\nNormally, urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber, but is usually a pale yellow.\nUsually urination color comes primarily from the presence of [urobilin](https://bliptext.com/articles/urobilin).\nUrobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of [heme](https://bliptext.com/articles/heme) from [hemoglobin](https://bliptext.com/articles/hemoglobin) during the destruction of aging blood cells.\nColorless urine indicates over-hydration.\nColorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration.\n# [Medical experts have long connected urine colour with certain medical conditions. A medieval chart showing the medical implications of different urine color | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/P.///28///a///chart///showing///urine///colours///and///their///meaning.jpg]\n\n## Odor\nSometime after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong \"fish-like\" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into [ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia).\nThis odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals; its presence may be a sign of a [urinary tract infection](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-tract-infection).\nThe odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases.\nFor example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor.\nThis can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as [kidney stones](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney-stone-disease).\nAdditionally, the presence of [amino acids](https://bliptext.com/articles/amino-acid) in urine (diagnosed as [[maple syrup](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup) urine disease](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup-urine-disease)) can cause it to smell of [maple syrup](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup).\nEating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body's breakdown of [asparagusic acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/asparagusic-acid).\nLikewise consumption of [saffron](https://bliptext.com/articles/saffron), [alcohol](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethanol), [coffee](https://bliptext.com/articles/coffee), [tuna fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/tuna-fish), and [onion](https://bliptext.com/articles/onion) can result in telltale scents.\nParticularly spicy foods can have a similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body.\n# [Dogs communicate using olfactory signals in urine. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Urinating///dog///%287768361246%29.jpg]\n\n## pH\nThe [pH](https://bliptext.com/articles/ph) normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2.\nIn persons with [hyperuricosuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/hyperuricosuria), acidic urine can contribute to the formation of [stones](https://bliptext.com/articles/calculus-medicine) of [uric acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/uric-acid) in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder.\nUrine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home.\nA diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy, as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH, whilst potassium and organic acids, such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables, can increase the pH and make it more alkaline.\nCranberries, popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine, have actually been shown not to acidify urine.\nDrugs that can decrease urine pH include [ammonium chloride](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonium-chloride), chlorothiazide diuretics, and methenamine [mandelate](https://bliptext.com/articles/mandelate).\n\n## Density\nHuman urine has a specific gravity of 1.003–1.035.\n\n## Bacteria and pathogens\nUrine is not sterile, not even in the bladder.\nIn the urethra, [epithelial cells](https://bliptext.com/articles/epithelium) lining the urethra are colonized by [facultatively anaerobic](https://bliptext.com/articles/facultative-anaerobic-organism) [Gram-negative rod and cocci bacteria](https://bliptext.com/articles/gram-negative-bacteria).\nOne study conducted in Nigeria isolated a total of 77 distinct bacterial strains from 100 healthy children (ages 5–11) as well as 39 strains from 33 cow urine samples, a considerable amount being pathogens.\nPathogens identified and their percentages were:\nThe study also states:\n\"Multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) rates recorded in children urinal bacterial species were 37.5–100% (Gram-positive) and 12.5–100% (Gram-negative), while MAR among the cow urinal bacteria was 12.5–75.0% (Gram-positive) and 25.0–100% (Gram-negative).\"\n\n# Examination for medical purposes\nMany physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients.\n[Hermogenes](https://bliptext.com/articles/hermogenes-philosopher) wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases.\n[Abdul Malik Ibn Habib](https://bliptext.com/articles/ibn-habib) of [Andalusia](https://bliptext.com/articles/andalusia) (d. 862 AD) mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the [Umayyad](https://bliptext.com/articles/umayyad) empire.\n[Diabetes mellitus](https://bliptext.com/articles/diabetes-mellitus) got its name because the urine is [plentiful](https://bliptext.com/articles/polyuria) and [sweet](https://bliptext.com/articles/sweetness).\nThe name [uroscopy](https://bliptext.com/articles/uroscopy) refers to any visual examination of the urine, including [microscopy](https://bliptext.com/articles/microscopy), although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or Proto-scientific forms of urine examination.\n[Clinical urine tests](https://bliptext.com/articles/clinical-urine-tests) today duly note the color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include [urinalysis](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinalysis), which chemically analyzes the urine and [quantifies](https://bliptext.com/articles/quantification-science) its constituents.\nA [culture](https://bliptext.com/articles/microbiological-culture) of the urine is performed when a [urinary tract infection](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-tract-infection) is suspected, as [bacteriuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/bacteriuria) without symptoms does not require treatment.\nA microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.\nThe color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level.\nClear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration.\nDark urine is a sign of [dehydration](https://bliptext.com/articles/dehydration).\nThe exception occurs when [diuretics](https://bliptext.com/articles/diuretics) are consumed, in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated.\n# [A Doctor Examining Urine. Trophime Bigot. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Bigot%2C///Trophime///-///A///Doctor///Examining///Urine.jpg]\n\n# Uses\n# [Urine of pregnant women in the first trimester is collected by a company which purifies the fertility hormone hCG from it (Ede, the Netherlands) | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Urine///collection///in///Ede%2C///Netherlands///%282920690579%29.jpg]\n\n## Source of medications\nUrine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs (e.g., Ureacin, [Urecholine](https://bliptext.com/articles/urecholine), Urowave).\nUrine from [postmenopausal](https://bliptext.com/articles/menopause) women is rich in [gonadotropins](https://bliptext.com/articles/gonadotropin) that can yield [follicle stimulating hormone](https://bliptext.com/articles/follicle-stimulating-hormone) and [luteinizing hormone](https://bliptext.com/articles/luteinizing-hormone) for fertility therapy.\nOne such commercial product is [Pergonal](https://bliptext.com/articles/pergonal).\nUrine from pregnant women contains enough [human chorionic gonadotropins](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-chorionic-gonadotropin) for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication.\nPregnant mare urine is the source of [estrogens](https://bliptext.com/articles/estrogen), namely [Premarin](https://bliptext.com/articles/premarin).\nUrine also contains [antibodies](https://bliptext.com/articles/antibody), which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of [pathogens](https://bliptext.com/articles/pathogen), including [HIV](https://bliptext.com/articles/hiv)-1.\nUrine can also be used to produce [urokinase](https://bliptext.com/articles/urokinase), which is used clinically as a [thrombolytic](https://bliptext.com/articles/thrombolysis) agent.\n# [Urine after four months of storage (note the color and turbidity change compared to fresh human urine). During storage, the urea in urine is rapidly hydrolyzed by urease, creating ammonia. Collected urine can be used as a fertilizer. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Urine///after///4///months///%2828///June%29///%282957323941%29.jpg]\n# [Fresh human urine after excretion | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Fresh///Urine///%28Day///0%3B///24///March%29///%282957323823%29.jpg]\n\n## Fertilizer\n\n## Cleaning\nGiven that urea in urine breaks down into ammonia, urine has been used for cleaning.\nIn pre-industrial times, urine was used – in the form of [lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant) or aged urine – as a cleaning fluid.\nUrine was also used for [whitening teeth in Ancient Rome](https://bliptext.com/articles/urine-therapy).\n\n## Gunpowder\nUrine was used before the development of a [chemical industry](https://bliptext.com/articles/chemical-industry) in the manufacture of [gunpowder](https://bliptext.com/articles/gunpowder).\nUrine, a nitrogen source, was used to moisten straw or other organic material, which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year.\nThe resulting [salts](https://bliptext.com/articles/salt-chemistry) were washed from the heap with water, which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals, that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder.\n\n## Survival uses\nThe [US Army Field Manual](https://bliptext.com/articles/us-army-field-manual) advises drinking urine for survival.\nThe manual explains that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it, and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation, even when there is no other fluid available.\nIn hot weather survival situations, where other sources of water are not available, soaking cloth (a shirt for example) in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body.\nDuring [World War I](https://bliptext.com/articles/world-war-i), [Germans](https://bliptext.com/articles/germans) experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons.\nAfter the first German [chlorine](https://bliptext.com/articles/chlorine) gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine.\nIt was believed that the [ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia) in the pad neutralized the chlorine.\nThese pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes.\n[Urban legend](https://bliptext.com/articles/urban-legend) states that urine works well against [jellyfish](https://bliptext.com/articles/jellyfish) stings.\nThis scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in the [Friends](https://bliptext.com/articles/friends) episode \"The One With the Jellyfish\", an early episode of [Survivor](https://bliptext.com/articles/survivor-u-s-tv-series), as well as the films [The Real Cancun](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-real-cancun) (2003), [The Heartbreak Kid](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-heartbreak-kid-2007-film) (2007) and [The Paperboy](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-paperboy-2012-film) (2012).\nHowever, at best it is ineffective, and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse.\n\n## Textiles\nUrine has often been used as a [mordant](https://bliptext.com/articles/mordant) to help prepare textiles, especially wool, for dyeing.\nIn the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides, the process of \"[waulking](https://bliptext.com/articles/waulking)\" (fulling) woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine, preferably infantile.\n\n## Olfactory communication\nUrine plays a role in [olfactory communication](https://bliptext.com/articles/interspecific-communication), since it contains [semiochemicals](https://bliptext.com/articles/semiochemical) that act as [pheromones](https://bliptext.com/articles/pheromone).\nThe urine of [predator](https://bliptext.com/articles/predator) species often contains [kairomones](https://bliptext.com/articles/kairomone) that serve as a [repellent](https://bliptext.com/articles/animal-repellent) against their [prey](https://bliptext.com/articles/prey) species.\n\n# History\nThe fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a [solution of ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia-solution); hence fermented urine was used in [Classical Antiquity](https://bliptext.com/articles/classical-antiquity) to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a [mordant](https://bliptext.com/articles/mordant) in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron.\nSee:\n[Alchemists](https://bliptext.com/articles/alchemy) spent much time trying to extract gold from urine, which led to discoveries such as [white phosphorus](https://bliptext.com/articles/white-phosphorus) by German alchemist [Hennig Brand](https://bliptext.com/articles/hennig-brand) when distilling [fermented](https://bliptext.com/articles/fermentation-biochemistry) urine in 1669.\nIn 1773 the French chemist [Hilaire Rouelle](https://bliptext.com/articles/hilaire-rouelle) discovered the organic compound [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea) by boiling urine dry.\n# [Medieval Welsh text from the Red Book of Hergest on uroscopy, called Ansoddau'r Trwnc (the 'Qualities of Urine'). Opening lines (translated): \"Since it is through the qualities of the urine that a person's faults and his dangers and his diseases and his illness can be identified...\" | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Jesus-College-MS-111///00470///235v///%28cropped%29///Ansoddau%27r///Trwnc.jpg]\n# [Image of two facing pages of the illuminated manuscript of \"Isagoge\", fols. 42b and 43a. On the top of the left hand page is an illuminated letter \"D\" – initial of De urinarum differencia negocium ('The matter of the differences of urines'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master on bench pointing at a raised flask while lecturing on the \"Book on urines\" of Theophilus. The right hand page is only shown in part. On its very bottom is an illuminated letter \"U\" – initial of Urina ergo est colamentum sanguinis ('Urine is the filtrate of the blood'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master holding up a flask while explaining the diagnostic significance of urine to a student or a patient. HMD Collection, MS E 78. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/De///urinarum///differencia///negocium///between///1210///and///1230///..JPG]\n\n# Language\nThe English word urine comes from the [Latin](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin) urina (-ae, f.), which is cognate with ancient words in various [Indo-European languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/indo-european-languages) that concern water, liquid, diving, rain, and urination (for example Sanskrit meaning 'it rains' or meaning 'water' and Greek meaning 'to urinate').\nThe [onomatopoetic](https://bliptext.com/articles/onomatopoeia) term piss predates the word urine, but is now considered vulgar.\nUrinate was at first used mostly in medical contexts.\nPiss is also used in such colloquialisms as to piss off, piss poor, and the slang expression pissing down to mean heavy rain.\n[Euphemisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/euphemism) and [expressions used between parents and children](https://bliptext.com/articles/baby-talk) (such as wee, pee, and many others) have long existed.\n[Lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant) is a word for aged urine, originating from the [Old English](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-english) word hland referring to urine in general.","wordIndex":4,"createdAt":"2025-03-05T06:35:45.790Z","user":{"id":"E0pRf1uFzkxnM7O2TKswocuuacTL266H","name":"Edward McInnes","image":null}}],"article":{"id":"49ed7cf3-4ac6-413c-85b3-ebd419524da5","title":"Urine","slug":"urine","content":":::summary\n:::\n\n# \n**Urine** is a joe_bifen drink of [metabolism](https://bliptext.com/articles/metabolism) in humans and in many other animals.\nIn [placental mammals](https://bliptext.com/articles/placental-mammal), urine flows from the [kidneys](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney-vertebrates) through the [ureters](https://bliptext.com/articles/ureter) to the [urinary bladder](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-bladder) and exits the [urethra](https://bliptext.com/articles/urethra) through the [penis](https://bliptext.com/articles/penis) or [vulva](https://bliptext.com/articles/vulva) during [urination](https://bliptext.com/articles/urination).\nIn other [vertebrates](https://bliptext.com/articles/vertebrate), urine is excreted through the [cloaca](https://bliptext.com/articles/cloaca).\nUrine contains water-soluble [by-products](https://bliptext.com/articles/by-product) of [cellular](https://bliptext.com/articles/cell-biology) metabolism that are rich in [nitrogen](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogen) and must be [cleared](https://bliptext.com/articles/clearance-medicine) from the [bloodstream](https://bliptext.com/articles/circulatory-system), such as [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea), [uric acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/uric-acid), and [creatinine](https://bliptext.com/articles/creatinine).\nA [urinalysis](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinalysis) can detect [nitrogenous wastes](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogenous-waste) of the [mammalian](https://bliptext.com/articles/mammal) body.\nUrine plays an important role in the earth's [nitrogen cycle](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogen-cycle).\nIn balanced [ecosystems](https://bliptext.com/articles/ecosystem), urine fertilizes the [soil](https://bliptext.com/articles/soil) and thus helps [plants](https://bliptext.com/articles/plant) to grow.\nTherefore, [urine can be used](https://bliptext.com/articles/reuse-of-excreta) as a [fertilizer](https://bliptext.com/articles/fertilizer).\nSome animals use it to [mark their territories](https://bliptext.com/articles/territory-animal).\nHistorically, aged or fermented urine (known as [lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant)) was also used for [gunpowder](https://bliptext.com/articles/gunpowder) production, household cleaning, [tanning](https://bliptext.com/articles/tanning-leather) of leather and [dyeing](https://bliptext.com/articles/dyeing) of textiles.\nHuman urine and [feces](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-feces) are collectively referred to as [human waste](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-waste) or human excreta, and are managed via [sanitation](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanitation) systems.\n[Livestock](https://bliptext.com/articles/livestock) urine and feces also require proper management if the [livestock population density is high](https://bliptext.com/articles/concentrated-animal-feeding-operation).\n# [Sample of human urine | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Weewee.JPG]\n\n# Physiology\nMost animals have [excretory systems](https://bliptext.com/articles/excretory-system) for elimination of soluble toxic wastes.\nIn humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the [urinary system](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-system) and, to a lesser extent in terms of [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea), removed by [perspiration](https://bliptext.com/articles/perspiration).\nIn placental mammals, the urinary system consists of the [kidneys](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney), [ureters](https://bliptext.com/articles/ureter), [urinary bladder](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-bladder), and [urethra](https://bliptext.com/articles/urethra).\nThe system produces urine by a process of [filtration](https://bliptext.com/articles/filtration), [reabsorption](https://bliptext.com/articles/absorption-chemistry), and [tubular secretion](https://bliptext.com/articles/renal-physiology).\nThe kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds.\nThe resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins.\nUrine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing through the [urinary meatus](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-meatus).\n# [The chemical structure of urea | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Harnstoff.svg]\n\n## Duration\nResearch looking at the duration of urination in a range of [mammal](https://bliptext.com/articles/mammal) species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size.\nSmaller species, including [rodents](https://bliptext.com/articles/rodent) and [bats](https://bliptext.com/articles/bat), cannot produce steady streams of urine and instead urinate with a series of drops.\n\n# Characteristics\n\n## Quantity\nAverage urine production in adult humans is around 1.4 L of urine per person per day with a normal range of 0.6 to 2.6 L per person per day, produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health.\nProducing too much or too little urine needs medical attention.\n[Polyuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/polyuria) is a condition of excessive production of urine (> 2.5 L/day), [oliguria](https://bliptext.com/articles/oliguria) when < 400 mL are produced, and [anuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/anuria) being < 100 mL per day.\n\n## Constituents\nAbout 91–96% of urine consists of water.\nThe remainder can be broadly characterized into inorganic salts, urea, organic compounds, and organic ammonium salts.\nUrine also contains proteins, hormones, and a wide range of [metabolites](https://bliptext.com/articles/metabolite), varying by what is introduced into the body.\nThe total solids in urine are on average 59 g per day per person.\n[Urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea) is the largest constituent of the solids, constituting more than 50% of the total.\nThe daily volume and composition of urine varies per person based on the amount of physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and protein intakes.\nIn healthy persons, urine contains very little protein and an [excess](https://bliptext.com/articles/proteinuria) is suggestive of illness, as with sugar.\nOrganic matter, in healthy persons, also is reported to at most 1.7 times more matter than minerals.\nHowever, any more than that is suggestive of illness.\nHowever, it is important to note that lesser amounts and concentrat[ions](https://bliptext.com/articles/ion) of other compounds and [ions](https://bliptext.com/articles/ion) are often present in urination of humans.\n# [Urine under the microscope | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Urine///under///the///microscope.jpg]\n\n## Color\nUrine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of [hydration](https://bliptext.com/articles/tissue-hydration), interactions with drugs, compounds and [pigments](https://bliptext.com/articles/pigment) or [dyes](https://bliptext.com/articles/dye) found in food, or diseases.\nNormally, urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber, but is usually a pale yellow.\nUsually urination color comes primarily from the presence of [urobilin](https://bliptext.com/articles/urobilin).\nUrobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of [heme](https://bliptext.com/articles/heme) from [hemoglobin](https://bliptext.com/articles/hemoglobin) during the destruction of aging blood cells.\nColorless urine indicates over-hydration.\nColorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration.\n# [Medical experts have long connected urine colour with certain medical conditions. A medieval chart showing the medical implications of different urine color | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/P.///28///a///chart///showing///urine///colours///and///their///meaning.jpg]\n\n## Odor\nSometime after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong \"fish-like\" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into [ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia).\nThis odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals; its presence may be a sign of a [urinary tract infection](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-tract-infection).\nThe odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases.\nFor example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor.\nThis can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as [kidney stones](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney-stone-disease).\nAdditionally, the presence of [amino acids](https://bliptext.com/articles/amino-acid) in urine (diagnosed as [maple syrup urine disease](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup-urine-disease)) can cause it to smell of [maple syrup](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup).\nEating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body's breakdown of [asparagusic acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/asparagusic-acid).\nLikewise consumption of [saffron](https://bliptext.com/articles/saffron), [alcohol](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethanol), [coffee](https://bliptext.com/articles/coffee), [tuna fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/tuna-fish), and [onion](https://bliptext.com/articles/onion) can result in telltale scents.\nParticularly spicy foods can have a similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body.\n# [Dogs communicate using olfactory signals in urine. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Urinating///dog///%287768361246%29.jpg]\n\n## pH\nThe [pH](https://bliptext.com/articles/ph) normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2.\nIn persons with [hyperuricosuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/hyperuricosuria), acidic urine can contribute to the formation of [stones](https://bliptext.com/articles/calculus-medicine) of [uric acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/uric-acid) in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder.\nUrine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home.\nA diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy, as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH, whilst potassium and organic acids, such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables, can increase the pH and make it more alkaline.\nCranberries, popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine, have actually been shown not to acidify urine.\nDrugs that can decrease urine pH include [ammonium chloride](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonium-chloride), chlorothiazide diuretics, and methenamine [mandelate](https://bliptext.com/articles/mandelate).\n\n## Density\nHuman urine has a specific gravity of 1.003–1.035.\n\n## Bacteria and pathogens\nUrine is not sterile, not even in the bladder.\nIn the urethra, [epithelial cells](https://bliptext.com/articles/epithelium) lining the urethra are colonized by [facultatively anaerobic](https://bliptext.com/articles/facultative-anaerobic-organism) [Gram-negative rod and cocci bacteria](https://bliptext.com/articles/gram-negative-bacteria).\nOne study conducted in Nigeria isolated a total of 77 distinct bacterial strains from 100 healthy children (ages 5–11) as well as 39 strains from 33 cow urine samples, a considerable amount being pathogens.\nPathogens identified and their percentages were:\nThe study also states:\n\"Multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) rates recorded in children urinal bacterial species were 37.5–100% (Gram-positive) and 12.5–100% (Gram-negative), while MAR among the cow urinal bacteria was 12.5–75.0% (Gram-positive) and 25.0–100% (Gram-negative).\"\n\n# Examination for medical purposes\nMany physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients.\n[Hermogenes](https://bliptext.com/articles/hermogenes-philosopher) wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases.\n[Abdul Malik Ibn Habib](https://bliptext.com/articles/ibn-habib) of [Andalusia](https://bliptext.com/articles/andalusia) (d. 862 AD) mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the [Umayyad](https://bliptext.com/articles/umayyad) empire.\n[Diabetes mellitus](https://bliptext.com/articles/diabetes-mellitus) got its name because the urine is [plentiful](https://bliptext.com/articles/polyuria) and [sweet](https://bliptext.com/articles/sweetness).\nThe name [uroscopy](https://bliptext.com/articles/uroscopy) refers to any visual examination of the urine, including [microscopy](https://bliptext.com/articles/microscopy), although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or Proto-scientific forms of urine examination.\n[Clinical urine tests](https://bliptext.com/articles/clinical-urine-tests) today duly note the color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include [urinalysis](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinalysis), which chemically analyzes the urine and [quantifies](https://bliptext.com/articles/quantification-science) its constituents.\nA [culture](https://bliptext.com/articles/microbiological-culture) of the urine is performed when a [urinary tract infection](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-tract-infection) is suspected, as [bacteriuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/bacteriuria) without symptoms does not require treatment.\nA microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.\nThe color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level.\nClear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration.\nDark urine is a sign of [dehydration](https://bliptext.com/articles/dehydration).\nThe exception occurs when [diuretics](https://bliptext.com/articles/diuretics) are consumed, in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated.\n# [A Doctor Examining Urine. Trophime Bigot. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Bigot%2C///Trophime///-///A///Doctor///Examining///Urine.jpg]\n\n# Uses\n# [Urine of pregnant women in the first trimester is collected by a company which purifies the fertility hormone hCG from it (Ede, the Netherlands) | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Urine///collection///in///Ede%2C///Netherlands///%282920690579%29.jpg]\n\n## Source of medications\nUrine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs (e.g., Ureacin, [Urecholine](https://bliptext.com/articles/urecholine), Urowave).\nUrine from [postmenopausal](https://bliptext.com/articles/menopause) women is rich in [gonadotropins](https://bliptext.com/articles/gonadotropin) that can yield [follicle stimulating hormone](https://bliptext.com/articles/follicle-stimulating-hormone) and [luteinizing hormone](https://bliptext.com/articles/luteinizing-hormone) for fertility therapy.\nOne such commercial product is [Pergonal](https://bliptext.com/articles/pergonal).\nUrine from pregnant women contains enough [human chorionic gonadotropins](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-chorionic-gonadotropin) for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication.\nPregnant mare urine is the source of [estrogens](https://bliptext.com/articles/estrogen), namely [Premarin](https://bliptext.com/articles/premarin).\nUrine also contains [antibodies](https://bliptext.com/articles/antibody), which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of [pathogens](https://bliptext.com/articles/pathogen), including [HIV](https://bliptext.com/articles/hiv)-1.\nUrine can also be used to produce [urokinase](https://bliptext.com/articles/urokinase), which is used clinically as a [thrombolytic](https://bliptext.com/articles/thrombolysis) agent.\n# [Urine after four months of storage (note the color and turbidity change compared to fresh human urine). During storage, the urea in urine is rapidly hydrolyzed by urease, creating ammonia. Collected urine can be used as a fertilizer. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Urine///after///4///months///%2828///June%29///%282957323941%29.jpg]\n# [Fresh human urine after excretion | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Fresh///Urine///%28Day///0%3B///24///March%29///%282957323823%29.jpg]\n\n## Fertilizer\n\n## Cleaning\nGiven that urea in urine breaks down into ammonia, urine has been used for cleaning.\nIn pre-industrial times, urine was used – in the form of [lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant) or aged urine – as a cleaning fluid.\nUrine was also used for [whitening teeth in Ancient Rome](https://bliptext.com/articles/urine-therapy).\n\n## Gunpowder\nUrine was used before the development of a [chemical industry](https://bliptext.com/articles/chemical-industry) in the manufacture of [gunpowder](https://bliptext.com/articles/gunpowder).\nUrine, a nitrogen source, was used to moisten straw or other organic material, which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year.\nThe resulting [salts](https://bliptext.com/articles/salt-chemistry) were washed from the heap with water, which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals, that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder.\n\n## Survival uses\nThe [US Army Field Manual](https://bliptext.com/articles/us-army-field-manual) advises drinking urine for survival.\nThe manual explains that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it, and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation, even when there is no other fluid available.\nIn hot weather survival situations, where other sources of water are not available, soaking cloth (a shirt for example) in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body.\nDuring [World War I](https://bliptext.com/articles/world-war-i), [Germans](https://bliptext.com/articles/germans) experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons.\nAfter the first German [chlorine](https://bliptext.com/articles/chlorine) gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine.\nIt was believed that the [ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia) in the pad neutralized the chlorine.\nThese pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes.\n[Urban legend](https://bliptext.com/articles/urban-legend) states that urine works well against [jellyfish](https://bliptext.com/articles/jellyfish) stings.\nThis scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in the [Friends](https://bliptext.com/articles/friends) episode \"The One With the Jellyfish\", an early episode of [Survivor](https://bliptext.com/articles/survivor-u-s-tv-series), as well as the films [The Real Cancun](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-real-cancun) (2003), [The Heartbreak Kid](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-heartbreak-kid-2007-film) (2007) and [The Paperboy](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-paperboy-2012-film) (2012).\nHowever, at best it is ineffective, and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse.\n\n## Textiles\nUrine has often been used as a [mordant](https://bliptext.com/articles/mordant) to help prepare textiles, especially wool, for dyeing.\nIn the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides, the process of \"[waulking](https://bliptext.com/articles/waulking)\" (fulling) woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine, preferably infantile.\n\n## Olfactory communication\nUrine plays a role in [olfactory communication](https://bliptext.com/articles/interspecific-communication), since it contains [semiochemicals](https://bliptext.com/articles/semiochemical) that act as [pheromones](https://bliptext.com/articles/pheromone).\nThe urine of [predator](https://bliptext.com/articles/predator) species often contains [kairomones](https://bliptext.com/articles/kairomone) that serve as a [repellent](https://bliptext.com/articles/animal-repellent) against their [prey](https://bliptext.com/articles/prey) species.\n\n# History\nThe fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a [solution of ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia-solution); hence fermented urine was used in [Classical Antiquity](https://bliptext.com/articles/classical-antiquity) to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a [mordant](https://bliptext.com/articles/mordant) in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron.\nSee:\n[Alchemists](https://bliptext.com/articles/alchemy) spent much time trying to extract gold from urine, which led to discoveries such as [white phosphorus](https://bliptext.com/articles/white-phosphorus) by German alchemist [Hennig Brand](https://bliptext.com/articles/hennig-brand) when distilling [fermented](https://bliptext.com/articles/fermentation-biochemistry) urine in 1669.\nIn 1773 the French chemist [Hilaire Rouelle](https://bliptext.com/articles/hilaire-rouelle) discovered the organic compound [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea) by boiling urine dry.\n# [Medieval Welsh text from the Red Book of Hergest on uroscopy, called Ansoddau'r Trwnc (the 'Qualities of Urine'). Opening lines (translated): \"Since it is through the qualities of the urine that a person's faults and his dangers and his diseases and his illness can be identified...\" | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Jesus-College-MS-111///00470///235v///%28cropped%29///Ansoddau%27r///Trwnc.jpg]\n# [Image of two facing pages of the illuminated manuscript of \"Isagoge\", fols. 42b and 43a. On the top of the left hand page is an illuminated letter \"D\" – initial of De urinarum differencia negocium ('The matter of the differences of urines'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master on bench pointing at a raised flask while lecturing on the \"Book on urines\" of Theophilus. The right hand page is only shown in part. On its very bottom is an illuminated letter \"U\" – initial of Urina ergo est colamentum sanguinis ('Urine is the filtrate of the blood'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master holding up a flask while explaining the diagnostic significance of urine to a student or a patient. HMD Collection, MS E 78. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/De///urinarum///differencia///negocium///between///1210///and///1230///..JPG]\n\n# Language\nThe English word urine comes from the [Latin](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin) urina (-ae, f.), which is cognate with ancient words in various [Indo-European languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/indo-european-languages) that concern water, liquid, diving, rain, and urination (for example Sanskrit meaning 'it rains' or meaning 'water' and Greek meaning 'to urinate').\nThe [onomatopoetic](https://bliptext.com/articles/onomatopoeia) term piss predates the word urine, but is now considered vulgar.\nUrinate was at first used mostly in medical contexts.\nPiss is also used in such colloquialisms as to piss off, piss poor, and the slang expression pissing down to mean heavy rain.\n[Euphemisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/euphemism) and [expressions used between parents and children](https://bliptext.com/articles/baby-talk) (such as wee, pee, and many others) have long existed.\n[Lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant) is a word for aged urine, originating from the [Old English](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-english) word hland referring to urine in general.","current_revision":"e6eac9a4-a0b7-4b79-b015-51ca88e5928b","created_by":"kACnuQmH5k9Nr5VNVEpVeg7XpvUmMctD","created_at":"2025-01-26T07:06:49.098Z","updated_at":"2025-10-09T02:35:50.414Z","search_vector":"'urin':1","search_content":" \n \n\n# \n**Urine** is a liquid [by-product](https://bliptext.com/articles/by-product) of [metabolism](https://bliptext.com/articles/metabolism) in humans and in many other animals.\nIn [placental mammals](https://bliptext.com/articles/placental-mammal), urine flows from the [kidneys](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney-vertebrates) through the [ureters](https://bliptext.com/articles/ureter) to the [urinary bladder](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-bladder) and exits the [urethra](https://bliptext.com/articles/urethra) through the [penis](https://bliptext.com/articles/penis) or [vulva](https://bliptext.com/articles/vulva) during [urination](https://bliptext.com/articles/urination).\nIn other [vertebrates](https://bliptext.com/articles/vertebrate), urine is excreted through the [cloaca](https://bliptext.com/articles/cloaca).\nUrine contains water-soluble [by-products](https://bliptext.com/articles/by-product) of [cellular](https://bliptext.com/articles/cell-biology) metabolism that are rich in [nitrogen](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogen) and must be [cleared](https://bliptext.com/articles/clearance-medicine) from the [bloodstream](https://bliptext.com/articles/circulatory-system), such as [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea), [uric acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/uric-acid), and [creatinine](https://bliptext.com/articles/creatinine).\nA [urinalysis](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinalysis) can detect [nitrogenous wastes](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogenous-waste) of the [mammalian](https://bliptext.com/articles/mammal) body.\nUrine plays an important role in the earth's [nitrogen cycle](https://bliptext.com/articles/nitrogen-cycle).\nIn balanced [ecosystems](https://bliptext.com/articles/ecosystem), urine fertilizes the [soil](https://bliptext.com/articles/soil) and thus helps [plants](https://bliptext.com/articles/plant) to grow.\nTherefore, [urine can be used](https://bliptext.com/articles/reuse-of-excreta) as a [fertilizer](https://bliptext.com/articles/fertilizer).\nSome animals use it to [mark their territories](https://bliptext.com/articles/territory-animal).\nHistorically, aged or fermented urine (known as [lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant)) was also used for [gunpowder](https://bliptext.com/articles/gunpowder) production, household cleaning, [tanning](https://bliptext.com/articles/tanning-leather) of leather and [dyeing](https://bliptext.com/articles/dyeing) of textiles.\nHuman urine and [feces](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-feces) are collectively referred to as [human waste](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-waste) or human excreta, and are managed via [sanitation](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanitation) systems.\n[Livestock](https://bliptext.com/articles/livestock) urine and feces also require proper management if the [livestock population density is high](https://bliptext.com/articles/concentrated-animal-feeding-operation).\n# [Sample of human urine | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Weewee.JPG]\n\n# Physiology\nMost animals have [excretory systems](https://bliptext.com/articles/excretory-system) for elimination of soluble toxic wastes.\nIn humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the [urinary system](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-system) and, to a lesser extent in terms of [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea), removed by [perspiration](https://bliptext.com/articles/perspiration).\nIn placental mammals, the urinary system consists of the [kidneys](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney), [ureters](https://bliptext.com/articles/ureter), [urinary bladder](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-bladder), and [urethra](https://bliptext.com/articles/urethra).\nThe system produces urine by a process of [filtration](https://bliptext.com/articles/filtration), [reabsorption](https://bliptext.com/articles/absorption-chemistry), and [tubular secretion](https://bliptext.com/articles/renal-physiology).\nThe kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds.\nThe resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins.\nUrine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing through the [urinary meatus](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-meatus).\n# [The chemical structure of urea | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Harnstoff.svg]\n\n## Duration\nResearch looking at the duration of urination in a range of [mammal](https://bliptext.com/articles/mammal) species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size.\nSmaller species, including [rodents](https://bliptext.com/articles/rodent) and [bats](https://bliptext.com/articles/bat), cannot produce steady streams of urine and instead urinate with a series of drops.\n\n# Characteristics\n\n## Quantity\nAverage urine production in adult humans is around 1.4 L of urine per person per day with a normal range of 0.6 to 2.6 L per person per day, produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health.\nProducing too much or too little urine needs medical attention.\n[Polyuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/polyuria) is a condition of excessive production of urine (> 2.5 L/day), [oliguria](https://bliptext.com/articles/oliguria) when < 400 mL are produced, and [anuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/anuria) being < 100 mL per day.\n\n## Constituents\nAbout 91–96% of urine consists of water.\nThe remainder can be broadly characterized into inorganic salts, urea, organic compounds, and organic ammonium salts.\nUrine also contains proteins, hormones, and a wide range of [metabolites](https://bliptext.com/articles/metabolite), varying by what is introduced into the body.\nThe total solids in urine are on average 59 g per day per person.\n[Urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea) is the largest constituent of the solids, constituting more than 50% of the total.\nThe daily volume and composition of urine varies per person based on the amount of physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and protein intakes.\nIn healthy persons, urine contains very little protein and an [excess](https://bliptext.com/articles/proteinuria) is suggestive of illness, as with sugar.\nOrganic matter, in healthy persons, also is reported to at most 1.7 times more matter than minerals.\nHowever, any more than that is suggestive of illness.\nHowever, it is important to note that lesser amounts and concentrat[ions](https://bliptext.com/articles/ion) of other compounds and [ions](https://bliptext.com/articles/ion) are often present in urination of humans.\n# [Urine under the microscope | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Urine///under///the///microscope.jpg]\n\n## Color\nUrine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of [hydration](https://bliptext.com/articles/tissue-hydration), interactions with drugs, compounds and [pigments](https://bliptext.com/articles/pigment) or [dyes](https://bliptext.com/articles/dye) found in food, or diseases.\nNormally, urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber, but is usually a pale yellow.\nUsually urination color comes primarily from the presence of [urobilin](https://bliptext.com/articles/urobilin).\nUrobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of [heme](https://bliptext.com/articles/heme) from [hemoglobin](https://bliptext.com/articles/hemoglobin) during the destruction of aging blood cells.\nColorless urine indicates over-hydration.\nColorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration.\n# [Medical experts have long connected urine colour with certain medical conditions. A medieval chart showing the medical implications of different urine color | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/P.///28///a///chart///showing///urine///colours///and///their///meaning.jpg]\n\n## Odor\nSometime after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong \"fish-like\" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into [ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia).\nThis odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals; its presence may be a sign of a [urinary tract infection](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-tract-infection).\nThe odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases.\nFor example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor.\nThis can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as [kidney stones](https://bliptext.com/articles/kidney-stone-disease).\nAdditionally, the presence of [amino acids](https://bliptext.com/articles/amino-acid) in urine (diagnosed as [[maple syrup](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup) urine disease](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup-urine-disease)) can cause it to smell of [maple syrup](https://bliptext.com/articles/maple-syrup).\nEating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body's breakdown of [asparagusic acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/asparagusic-acid).\nLikewise consumption of [saffron](https://bliptext.com/articles/saffron), [alcohol](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethanol), [coffee](https://bliptext.com/articles/coffee), [tuna fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/tuna-fish), and [onion](https://bliptext.com/articles/onion) can result in telltale scents.\nParticularly spicy foods can have a similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body.\n# [Dogs communicate using olfactory signals in urine. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Urinating///dog///%287768361246%29.jpg]\n\n## pH\nThe [pH](https://bliptext.com/articles/ph) normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2.\nIn persons with [hyperuricosuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/hyperuricosuria), acidic urine can contribute to the formation of [stones](https://bliptext.com/articles/calculus-medicine) of [uric acid](https://bliptext.com/articles/uric-acid) in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder.\nUrine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home.\nA diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy, as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH, whilst potassium and organic acids, such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables, can increase the pH and make it more alkaline.\nCranberries, popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine, have actually been shown not to acidify urine.\nDrugs that can decrease urine pH include [ammonium chloride](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonium-chloride), chlorothiazide diuretics, and methenamine [mandelate](https://bliptext.com/articles/mandelate).\n\n## Density\nHuman urine has a specific gravity of 1.003–1.035.\n\n## Bacteria and pathogens\nUrine is not sterile, not even in the bladder.\nIn the urethra, [epithelial cells](https://bliptext.com/articles/epithelium) lining the urethra are colonized by [facultatively anaerobic](https://bliptext.com/articles/facultative-anaerobic-organism) [Gram-negative rod and cocci bacteria](https://bliptext.com/articles/gram-negative-bacteria).\nOne study conducted in Nigeria isolated a total of 77 distinct bacterial strains from 100 healthy children (ages 5–11) as well as 39 strains from 33 cow urine samples, a considerable amount being pathogens.\nPathogens identified and their percentages were:\nThe study also states:\n\"Multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) rates recorded in children urinal bacterial species were 37.5–100% (Gram-positive) and 12.5–100% (Gram-negative), while MAR among the cow urinal bacteria was 12.5–75.0% (Gram-positive) and 25.0–100% (Gram-negative).\"\n\n# Examination for medical purposes\nMany physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients.\n[Hermogenes](https://bliptext.com/articles/hermogenes-philosopher) wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases.\n[Abdul Malik Ibn Habib](https://bliptext.com/articles/ibn-habib) of [Andalusia](https://bliptext.com/articles/andalusia) (d. 862 AD) mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the [Umayyad](https://bliptext.com/articles/umayyad) empire.\n[Diabetes mellitus](https://bliptext.com/articles/diabetes-mellitus) got its name because the urine is [plentiful](https://bliptext.com/articles/polyuria) and [sweet](https://bliptext.com/articles/sweetness).\nThe name [uroscopy](https://bliptext.com/articles/uroscopy) refers to any visual examination of the urine, including [microscopy](https://bliptext.com/articles/microscopy), although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or Proto-scientific forms of urine examination.\n[Clinical urine tests](https://bliptext.com/articles/clinical-urine-tests) today duly note the color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include [urinalysis](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinalysis), which chemically analyzes the urine and [quantifies](https://bliptext.com/articles/quantification-science) its constituents.\nA [culture](https://bliptext.com/articles/microbiological-culture) of the urine is performed when a [urinary tract infection](https://bliptext.com/articles/urinary-tract-infection) is suspected, as [bacteriuria](https://bliptext.com/articles/bacteriuria) without symptoms does not require treatment.\nA microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.\nThe color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level.\nClear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration.\nDark urine is a sign of [dehydration](https://bliptext.com/articles/dehydration).\nThe exception occurs when [diuretics](https://bliptext.com/articles/diuretics) are consumed, in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated.\n# [A Doctor Examining Urine. Trophime Bigot. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Bigot%2C///Trophime///-///A///Doctor///Examining///Urine.jpg]\n\n# Uses\n# [Urine of pregnant women in the first trimester is collected by a company which purifies the fertility hormone hCG from it (Ede, the Netherlands) | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Urine///collection///in///Ede%2C///Netherlands///%282920690579%29.jpg]\n\n## Source of medications\nUrine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs (e.g., Ureacin, [Urecholine](https://bliptext.com/articles/urecholine), Urowave).\nUrine from [postmenopausal](https://bliptext.com/articles/menopause) women is rich in [gonadotropins](https://bliptext.com/articles/gonadotropin) that can yield [follicle stimulating hormone](https://bliptext.com/articles/follicle-stimulating-hormone) and [luteinizing hormone](https://bliptext.com/articles/luteinizing-hormone) for fertility therapy.\nOne such commercial product is [Pergonal](https://bliptext.com/articles/pergonal).\nUrine from pregnant women contains enough [human chorionic gonadotropins](https://bliptext.com/articles/human-chorionic-gonadotropin) for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication.\nPregnant mare urine is the source of [estrogens](https://bliptext.com/articles/estrogen), namely [Premarin](https://bliptext.com/articles/premarin).\nUrine also contains [antibodies](https://bliptext.com/articles/antibody), which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of [pathogens](https://bliptext.com/articles/pathogen), including [HIV](https://bliptext.com/articles/hiv)-1.\nUrine can also be used to produce [urokinase](https://bliptext.com/articles/urokinase), which is used clinically as a [thrombolytic](https://bliptext.com/articles/thrombolysis) agent.\n# [Urine after four months of storage (note the color and turbidity change compared to fresh human urine). During storage, the urea in urine is rapidly hydrolyzed by urease, creating ammonia. Collected urine can be used as a fertilizer. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Urine///after///4///months///%2828///June%29///%282957323941%29.jpg]\n# [Fresh human urine after excretion | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Fresh///Urine///%28Day///0%3B///24///March%29///%282957323823%29.jpg]\n\n## Fertilizer\n\n## Cleaning\nGiven that urea in urine breaks down into ammonia, urine has been used for cleaning.\nIn pre-industrial times, urine was used – in the form of [lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant) or aged urine – as a cleaning fluid.\nUrine was also used for [whitening teeth in Ancient Rome](https://bliptext.com/articles/urine-therapy).\n\n## Gunpowder\nUrine was used before the development of a [chemical industry](https://bliptext.com/articles/chemical-industry) in the manufacture of [gunpowder](https://bliptext.com/articles/gunpowder).\nUrine, a nitrogen source, was used to moisten straw or other organic material, which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year.\nThe resulting [salts](https://bliptext.com/articles/salt-chemistry) were washed from the heap with water, which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals, that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder.\n\n## Survival uses\nThe [US Army Field Manual](https://bliptext.com/articles/us-army-field-manual) advises drinking urine for survival.\nThe manual explains that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it, and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation, even when there is no other fluid available.\nIn hot weather survival situations, where other sources of water are not available, soaking cloth (a shirt for example) in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body.\nDuring [World War I](https://bliptext.com/articles/world-war-i), [Germans](https://bliptext.com/articles/germans) experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons.\nAfter the first German [chlorine](https://bliptext.com/articles/chlorine) gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine.\nIt was believed that the [ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia) in the pad neutralized the chlorine.\nThese pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes.\n[Urban legend](https://bliptext.com/articles/urban-legend) states that urine works well against [jellyfish](https://bliptext.com/articles/jellyfish) stings.\nThis scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in the [Friends](https://bliptext.com/articles/friends) episode \"The One With the Jellyfish\", an early episode of [Survivor](https://bliptext.com/articles/survivor-u-s-tv-series), as well as the films [The Real Cancun](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-real-cancun) (2003), [The Heartbreak Kid](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-heartbreak-kid-2007-film) (2007) and [The Paperboy](https://bliptext.com/articles/the-paperboy-2012-film) (2012).\nHowever, at best it is ineffective, and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse.\n\n## Textiles\nUrine has often been used as a [mordant](https://bliptext.com/articles/mordant) to help prepare textiles, especially wool, for dyeing.\nIn the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides, the process of \"[waulking](https://bliptext.com/articles/waulking)\" (fulling) woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine, preferably infantile.\n\n## Olfactory communication\nUrine plays a role in [olfactory communication](https://bliptext.com/articles/interspecific-communication), since it contains [semiochemicals](https://bliptext.com/articles/semiochemical) that act as [pheromones](https://bliptext.com/articles/pheromone).\nThe urine of [predator](https://bliptext.com/articles/predator) species often contains [kairomones](https://bliptext.com/articles/kairomone) that serve as a [repellent](https://bliptext.com/articles/animal-repellent) against their [prey](https://bliptext.com/articles/prey) species.\n\n# History\nThe fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a [solution of ammonia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ammonia-solution); hence fermented urine was used in [Classical Antiquity](https://bliptext.com/articles/classical-antiquity) to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a [mordant](https://bliptext.com/articles/mordant) in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron.\nSee:\n[Alchemists](https://bliptext.com/articles/alchemy) spent much time trying to extract gold from urine, which led to discoveries such as [white phosphorus](https://bliptext.com/articles/white-phosphorus) by German alchemist [Hennig Brand](https://bliptext.com/articles/hennig-brand) when distilling [fermented](https://bliptext.com/articles/fermentation-biochemistry) urine in 1669.\nIn 1773 the French chemist [Hilaire Rouelle](https://bliptext.com/articles/hilaire-rouelle) discovered the organic compound [urea](https://bliptext.com/articles/urea) by boiling urine dry.\n# [Medieval Welsh text from the Red Book of Hergest on uroscopy, called Ansoddau'r Trwnc (the 'Qualities of Urine'). Opening lines (translated): \"Since it is through the qualities of the urine that a person's faults and his dangers and his diseases and his illness can be identified...\" | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Jesus-College-MS-111///00470///235v///%28cropped%29///Ansoddau%27r///Trwnc.jpg]\n# [Image of two facing pages of the illuminated manuscript of \"Isagoge\", fols. 42b and 43a. On the top of the left hand page is an illuminated letter \"D\" – initial of De urinarum differencia negocium ('The matter of the differences of urines'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master on bench pointing at a raised flask while lecturing on the \"Book on urines\" of Theophilus. The right hand page is only shown in part. On its very bottom is an illuminated letter \"U\" – initial of Urina ergo est colamentum sanguinis ('Urine is the filtrate of the blood'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master holding up a flask while explaining the diagnostic significance of urine to a student or a patient. HMD Collection, MS E 78. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/De///urinarum///differencia///negocium///between///1210///and///1230///..JPG]\n\n# Language\nThe English word urine comes from the [Latin](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin) urina (-ae, f.), which is cognate with ancient words in various [Indo-European languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/indo-european-languages) that concern water, liquid, diving, rain, and urination (for example Sanskrit meaning 'it rains' or meaning 'water' and Greek meaning 'to urinate').\nThe [onomatopoetic](https://bliptext.com/articles/onomatopoeia) term piss predates the word urine, but is now considered vulgar.\nUrinate was at first used mostly in medical contexts.\nPiss is also used in such colloquialisms as to piss off, piss poor, and the slang expression pissing down to mean heavy rain.\n[Euphemisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/euphemism) and [expressions used between parents and children](https://bliptext.com/articles/baby-talk) (such as wee, pee, and many others) have long existed.\n[Lant](https://bliptext.com/articles/lant) is a word for aged urine, originating from the [Old English](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-english) word hland referring to urine in general.","revisionCount":3},"hasMore":false,"nextCursor":null}