Pashto is an S-O-V language with split ergativity. Adjectives come before nouns. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for gender (masc./fem.), number (sing./plur.), and case (direct, oblique, ablative and vocative). The verb system is very intricate with the following tenses: Present; simple past; past progressive; present perfect; and past perfect. In any of the past tenses (simple past, past progressive, present perfect, past perfect), Pashto is an ergative language; i.e., transitive verbs in any of the past tenses agree with the object of the sentence. The dialects show some non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms. In the following article stress is represented by the following markers over vowels: ә́, á, ā́, ú, ó, í and é.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns

Possessive pronouns

There is no plural form with nouns.

Interrogative pronouns

Indefinite

Nouns

Case and gender

Pashto inflects nouns into four grammatical cases: direct, oblique, ablative (also known as oblique II) and vocative. The oblique case is used as prepositional case as well as in the past tense as the subject of transitive verbs (i.e. in ergative construction), and the ablative case is used with certain prepositions and with some numerals. There are two genders: masculine and feminine. Gender of a noun is indicated by its ending. Animate nouns' gender agrees with biological gender regardless of the ending. Pashto has no definite article. But when necessary, definiteness may be indicated by other means such as demonstratives. Likewise, it may be contraindicated by use of the word for "one", يو; as in "يو روغتون" – "a hospital".

Class 1

Masculine nouns

Generally, animate masculine nouns take ان -ā́n in plural, and inanimate ones take ونه -úna. Masculine nouns ending in ۀ -ә lose it when attaching the suffixes. The grammatical animacy usually corresponds with physical animacy, but there are some exceptions, like مېړۀ meṛә́ "husband" is inanimate grammatically with plural مېړونه meṛúna, and پل pul "bridge" is animate — پلان pulā́n. The nouns ending in -i, -ā (these are always animate) or -u (these can be both animate and inanimate) take ان with -g-, -y- or -w- inserted between vowels. Words ending in -āCә́ pattern (like وادۀ wādә́ "wedding") have short -a- in plural. Examples

Feminine nouns

Feminine nouns generally have final -a. They change it to -e in the oblique cases and direct plural and to -o in oblique plural, independently of their animacy. A few feminine nouns end in a consonant, they still take the same endings. In Southern Pashto, the final -e is pronounced -i when unstressed. For example, the plural of سترګه stә́rga "eye" and لار lār "way" would be سترګې stә́rge and لارې lā́re in the North, but سترګي stә́rgi and لاري lā́ri in the South, while مڼه maṇá "apple" and تخته taxtá "board" would be مڼې maṇé and تختې taxté in both dialect groups. There are also feminine nouns ending in other vowels, particularly -e (they take یانې -yā́ne in the plural) and -ā or -o (they take either ګانې -gā́ne or وې -we). In Southern Pashto they are یاني -yā́ni, ګاني -gā́ni and وي -wi (the last one is not as common as in Northern Pashto and is mostly restricted to a few nouns). Examples

Class 2

In class 2 there's only masculine nouns, both animate and inanimate. They are subject to various alterations inside the stems. The take -ə́ in the plural and oblique forms. Nouns with -ú- or -ó- in the last syllable change them to -ā-. Some nouns like تنور tanúr "oven" belong to the mixed conjugation, they form their oblique forms as Class 2 nouns, but their plurals are derived according to Class 1 pattern (but the -ú/ó- may be reduced to -a- in Southern dialects or -ə- in Northern dialects). The word پالېز paléz "kitchen garden" is often cited as an example of a noun that belongs to class 2, but doesn't undergo any stem changes. There are some animate masculine nouns ending in -á (مېلمه melma "guest", اسبه asba "(horse) shepherd", غوبه ğoba "(cow) shepherd", کوربه korba "owner of the house" etc.), they also belong to Class 2. Monosyllabic nouns with -a- lose it and take -ə in the oblique and plural forms. There several exceptions here: غر ğar "mountain", ور war "door", ګز gaz "gaz (unit of length)", من man "man (unit of weight)", ټغر ṭağar "rug" take ونه -úna in the plural form (غرونه ğrúna, ورونه warúna/wrúna etc). Nouns with -á- in the last syllable change it to -ə́-. Most of them are mixed in their conjugation: they can take (or not take) -ā́n or -úna in the plural form. A lot of inanimate nouns in this class can take both suffixes. The only exception here is سخر sxar "stone", which is always sxə́r in plural. This subclass also contains words suffixed with ګر, ور, ن, زن. Examples

Class 3

Nouns in Class 3 are related to adjectives ending in -ay, -əy, -e. Masculine -áy (note the stress) nouns, especially if animate, sometimes have alternative plurals in -yā́n. Its usage is somewhat dialect-dependent, they aren't as common in Southern Pashto. Among feminine -əy nouns, even inanimate ones can take یانې or ګانې, they also can stay unchanged in the plural. Some abstract nouns suffixed with ي -i (such as دوستي "friendship", چلاکي "trickiness", ګرمي "heatness" etc.) also belong here. Examples

Uncountable nouns

They don't have plural forms. They take و -o in the oblique and ablative forms. Feminine Examples include اوړه [oṛә́ – flour], اوبه [obә́ -water], پۍ [pə́i – milk] etc. Example: اوبه – water Example: پۍ – milk Masculine Examples include: ږدن [ẓ̌dәn -sorghum], دال [dāl -lentils], شراب [šarā́b – alcohol] Example: دال – lentils

Irregular nouns

These are limited to nouns denoting kinship. Feminine – "or" stem These include: مور /mor/ 'mother'; plural stem /máynd-/ خور /xor/ 'sister'; plural stem /xwáynd-/ ترور /tror/ 'paternal aunt'; plural stem /tráynd-/ نګور /ngor/ 'daughter-in-law'; plural stem /ngáynd-/ Example: Brother and daughter ورور= brother takes وڼه in direct plural لور= daughter takes وڼې in direct plural Son

Adjectives

An adjective is called stāynúm in Pashto [ستاينوم]. The adjectives or stāynumúna agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case. Notes:

Class 1

Case-marking suffixes

Class I adjectives are consonant-final in their citation form and keep the stress on the final syllable of the stem.

Stem allomorphy

In the Southern dialects, Class I adjectives with certain stem shapes will undergo mutation either: or In other dialects these vowels do not mutate.

Vowel harmony

Class I adjectives with the stressed stem vowel /ə́/ (Southern), such as دنګ /dəng/ 'tall', undergo regressive harmony in the feminine direct plural and in both oblique plural forms—when the suffix vowel is /o/.

Centralization

Class I adjectives for which the last syllable in the masculine direct singular form is ور /‑wár/, ګر /‑gár/, جن /‑ján/, or م ن /‑mán/, as well as ordinal numbers ending in م /‑ám/, undergo a different vowel alternation: the vowel /á/ of the final syllable centralizes to /ə́/ in feminine non-direct singulars and in all plural forms, irrespective of gender.

Class I forms with stem allomorphy

Example 1 = سپک (light – in weight) The paradigm for the adjective سپک /spək/ 'light' in above shows the Southern dialect's Vowel harmony rule. **Example 2 = زړور (brave) ** The paradigm for the adjective زړور /zṛawár/ 'brave' illustrates centralization rule for the Southern dialect.

Animacy

When modifying animate nouns, some Class I adjectives may take the animate plural suffixes of Class I nouns example: Məʃarɑn wruɳa 'Elder brothers'

Class 2

Class 2 adjectives can end in either a consonant or a stressed schwa ( ه /‑ə́/). Except for the masculine singular ablative and vocative suffixes, the suffixes of Class II are inherently stressed. These stressed suffixes are the chief difference between Class 1 and Class 2, although there are a few differences in suffix shape as well. Whether a consonant-final adjective belongs to Class 1 (stem-stressed) or Class II (suffix-stressed) is a property of the lexeme and is not predictable.

Case-marking suffixes

Stem allomorphy

Some Class2 adjectives undergo stem allomorphy processes upon inflection, all of them stress-conditioned. The first, Syncope I, affects the final vowels of /ə́/-final Class 2 adjectives; the rest affect the stem vowels of consonant-final Class 2 adjectives (which either lower or delete when unstressed). Lowering affects only back vowels, but not all of them. It is not possible to predict which rule, Back vowel lowering or Syncope II, applies to a given consonant-final adjective. The rules are:

Syncope I

If suffixation results in two adjacent vowels and only one is stressed, the unstressed vowel deletes. If both are stressed, the first vowel deletes. This rule applies to vowel-final adjectives. Examole: Vowel-final adjectives that end in stressed ۀ /‑ə́/ Vowel-final adjectives that end stressed ه /‑ə́/ in their citation form include تېره /terə/́ 'sharp'. These can be reliably identified from this citation form as belonging to Class 2; no other class has adjectives ending in /-ə́/. The final stem-vowel of these adjectives undergoes one or other of the morphophonemic rules of Syncope I.

Back vowel lowering

Inmost Class 2 consonant-final adjectives with non-initial back vowels, و /o/, /u/ lowers to /a/ when unstressed. In most consonant-final adjectives where the stem vowel is a back vowel, و /o/, /u/, it will undergo vowel lowering in unstressed position, followed by lengthening when the next syllable contains /ə́/ such as for the words, پو خ /pox/ 'cooked, ripe' and ړوند /ṛund/ 'blind', illustrated above.

Monophthongization

In adjectives with /aw/ or /wa/ in the stem [usually seen in the feminine tense], those sequences simplify to /o/ when stressed. Back vowel breaking: تود /tod/ 'hot'; stem = /tawd/.

Lengthening

Short /a/ lengthens to long /ā/ when the syllable following it contains /ə́/. This rule affects those adjectives that undergo back vowel lowering, such as for پاخۀ → پوخ and ړاندۀ → ړوند and those that undergo monophthongization, such as تاودۀ → تود.

Lengthening

In a few consonant-final adjectives the stem vowel is deleted when not stressed. Example = سور /sur/ – red

Epenthesis

If syncope results in a triple consonant cluster, an /a/ might be inserted after the first or second consonant.

Class 3

These adjectives end in the diphthong participial suffix, ی /‑ay/, in the masculine direct singular form/. This suffix may be stressed or unstressed.

Case-marking suffixes

Stressed Unstressed

Stressed

Example = زلمی (young/youth – the ی is stressed)

Unstressed

Example = سوی (burnt- the ی is unstressed)

Class 4

This the "non-declining" class – these do not decline. These adjectives are generally borrowed from other languages. They do not have masculine-feminine or singular-plural distinction. But some speakers use the oblique suffixes  و /‑o/, وو /‑wo/ on these adjectives in the plural oblique, ablative and vocative cases. **Example = شمالي (Persian-Arabic borrowing) ** **Example = شمالي (Southern Dialect) **

Derivational affixes

Pashto utilities morphological derivation: there is an addition to the base form or stem of a word in order to modify its meaning [not grammatical function like verbal suffixes].

Prefixes

These are attached at the beginning of words. Here is a list of the most common ones: A list of examples:

Suffixes

These are attached at the end of a word. Here is a list of the most common ones: A list of examples:

Creating new words

Other than the recognised words above; new words can be coined by speakers through these affixes Example:

Infinitive

This is called Kaṛnúmay [کړنومی] in Pashto that is "the name of a verb". It shows an infinite action or occurrence. It is used as a noun. It acquires the gender and number of a masculine plural noun. Example: وکړل [past perfective tense of the transitive verb کول – "to do"] shows agreement with masculine plural object that is the infinitive وهل. Hağúi pә xpә́lo ke wahә́l wә́kṛəl they:DIR:3:PL on:PREP own:OBL:M:PL on:POST to-beat:PST:CONT:3:M:PL do:PST:PRF:3:PL They have fought amongst themselves

Double infinitives

These are formed by combining two infinitives – either by combining a simple infinitive with a prefixed infinitive. – or by combining two simple infinitives:

Verb

Verbs: categories

Simple verbs

They are in the morpheme state. Examples:

Prefixed verbs

These are described below as doubly irregular. They take the form of a derivational prefix plus a verb base.

Deictic prefixed verb

These correspond to the oblique pronominal and directionals clitics.

Non-productive prefixed verbs

Like deictic prefixed these are subject to the same rules of stress movement to show perfective aspect, as well as to separation from the rest of the verb by negative morphemes and second-position clitics. But generally their meanings are not synchronically separable from the verbal lexeme of which they are a part of. Example: پرېکول – to cut. The prefix [پرې] is separated from the verb stem [کول] by a second position clitic [يې] pré ye kṛá cut:VB:PREFIX:AOR it/he/she:3:WK cut:VB:AOR:IMP:SG Cut it

a-initial verbs

These begin with ا /a/; but they do not include compound verbs beginning with /a/. Examples: Their syntactic behaviour resembles that of prefixed verbs: the initial /a/ can separate from the rest of the verb as though it were a prefix. Unlike prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs differ in that they take the prefix و  /wə́/ for perfective forms. Unlike all the verbs; they are unusual, in that their stress is variable in the imperfective aspect: it can be either be initial or non-initial. Other verbs can not have initial stress. When the /a/ is separated from the rest of the verb in the imperfective aspect it has initial stress. Example: initial stress ** Example: non-initial stress **

Compound verbs

There are two categories of compound verbs. There are also some exceptions to these.

First category

These are formed by adding ول [-wә́l] and ېدل [edә́l] verbal-suffixes to nouns, adjectives or adverbs. The attaching noun, adjective and adverb should not end in a vowel. Example:

Exceptions

There are also exceptions to this category. Example: سوچ کول etc.

Second category

These are formed adding auxiliary verbs کول and کېدل to the noun and adjectives. The attaching noun and adjective end in a vowel. Examples:

Verbs: conjugation classes

These can be divided in reference to the verb categories as above:

Verbs: bases

Pashto verb bases are formed according to the tense (present/past) and aspect (perfective/imperfective) of a verb. Aspect The perfective aspect is indicated by the stressed prefix و /wә́/ or in the case of complex verbs [prefixed verbs, a-initial and compound verbs] by stress on the prefix or complement. The imperfective aspect is indicated by the absence of و /wə/ or stress on the verb itself rather than the prefix or complement. Tense The present tense either by the absence of this suffix (transitives), or by the suffix ېږ /ég/ (intransitives). For single stem verbs: the past tenses is indicated by either the suffix ل /ə́l/ (for transitive verbs) or ېد /ed(ə́l)/ (for intransitives). For two or more stemmed verbs: the past tense is indicated by stem allomorphy. Bases Therefore, the following four-fold-method to differentianate of bases:

1. present perfective
2. present imperfective
3. past perfective
4. past impefective Inflection In order to make fully inflected verbs, you add either of the following to these bases:

Verbs: Single Stems

These are referred to as Weak Verbs by Anna Boyle. These have one stem. From this single stem from all four bases are predictable.

First Conjugation Class

Transitve

Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to tie" Notes:

Intransitve

Here is an example first conjugation class intransitive verb: "to reach" Notes:

Second Conjugation Class

In the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix. Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to bring (to speaker)" Notes:

Verbs: Two Stems

These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle These have two stems: present stem and a past stem.

First Conjugation Class

The stems can either share initial sounds as in example: Or they can be share no similar sounds Example: the verb لیدل [to see] In either case the same rules apply, as noted by Anna Boyle: Notes:

Second Conjugation Class

As above, in the second conjugation, perfectives are formed by a shift of stress to the existing prefix, rather than the addition of the و /wә́/ prefix. Example one: the verb پرېښودل [to leave] Notes:

Verbs: Multiple Stems

These are referred to as Strong Verbs by Anna Boyle. These are verbs whose imperfective and perfective stems differ as well as their present and past stems. The difference between perfective and imperfective is carried by stress; in perfective the stress is on the first part of the verb whereas in imperfective the stress is on the last syllables. These examples have been taken from Anna Boyle, pages 219–224 with the tables rearranged: Examples: Observation: either three stemmed [ږد, کېږد, کېښود] or four stemmed [یښود ږد, کېږد, کېښود] Observation: Four stems Observation: Four Stems Observation: This example contains locative prefixes را,در,ور Observation:Three stems:وړ [wṛ] for imperfective and یوس + یووړ for the perfectives. Note – Prefixed وړل /wṛә́l/ 'to carry', use its weak stem [as illustrated with پرېوتل above] **Notes: ** • Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem • Present perfective base: initial-stressed present perfective stem • Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere) • Past perfective base: initial-stressed past perfective stem + (ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)

کول and کېدل

Here there use as main verbs are alluded to. To the verb – to do: The brackete [ṛ] in the present perfective base of کول /kawә́l/ 'to do' indicates that it sometimes is not pronounced in speech Important: Here there use as main verbs are alluded to - when کول and کېدل are used as verbalizers, their perfective forms are not formed with the first conjugation prefix و  /wә́/, but are irregular. To the verb – to become Notes : • Present imperfective base = (present) imperfective stem • Present perfective base: و  /wә́/ + present perfective stem • Past imperfective base: (past continuous) stem+ ( ل /ə́l/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere) • Past perfective base: و  /wә́/ + past perfective stem + ( ل  /‑ə́l-/—prohibited in 3rd Person Sing. Masc; optional elsewhere)

Verbs: aspect

Pashto in every tense has an aspect: perfective aspect [بشپړاړخ] and imperfective aspect [نابشپړاړخ]. The perfective aspect indicates completion or termination of an action. The imperfective aspect indicates continuity of an action or the habitual nature of the action.

Stress

In both aspects the [stress خج] is applied to the verb. In perfective, the stress is applied to the initial part of the verb, while in the imperfective it is generally applied to the final part of the verb.

First conjugation

First conjugation verbs, e.g. وهل as above, can be recognised by perfective form, which begin with the prefix و /wə́/, which carries an inherent stress. In a-initial verbs, the perfecive prefix و /wə́/ coalesces with the /a/ to form a prefix وا /wā́/. Example:

Second conjugation

These are referred to as prefixed verbs aboves: all of the form prefix + stem. These behave morphosyntactically: they undergo stress shift to form the perfectived, and they can be separated from the stem by a second-position clitic or the negative morpheme. Example:

Third conjugation

These are called compound verbs above – those with adjective complements and noun complements + forms of کول /kawə́l/ or کېدل /kedə́l/. Here the perfective is formed by: Many third conjugation verbs are contracted in the imperfective aspect, in perfective constructions, the complement is always separate from the verbalizer. Example 1: Example 2:

Verbs: verbal suffixes

Pashto utilises verbal suffixes [د کړ تاړي].

Personal suffixes

Verbal suffixes in Pashto denote person, gender and number. It is easy to demonstrate these in with intransitive verbs in the imperfective.

Present imperfective tense

Gəḍéẓ̌ is the present imperfective stem of the verb gaḍedəl [to dance].

Past imperfective tense

Gəḍēd is the past stem of the verb gaḍēdəl [to dance]. Note: In the plural the 3rd person past masculine can denote both genders when talking about a group. While in the plural the 3rd person past feminine is only used when talking about a group of individuals classed in the female gender. Example:

3rd Person Past Singular Masculine

Generally ه [ə] or no-stem suffix is employed. But sometimes ئ [əi] is found also.

Plural suffix of وتل watəl

With وتل the plural suffix ل(əl) is not used instead:

Verbs: agreement

Intransitive verbs

As can be seen from the intransitive verb above [ګډېدل] – the verb agrees with the subject.

Agreement – transitive verbs

Example 1: خوړل – transitive verb – to eat Compare: Example 2: اغوستل – transitive verb – to put on/dress Compare:

Compound transitive verbs – split agreement

In the present tense the nominal/adjectival part of the compound verb agrees with the object. But the auxiliary کول [to do] agrees with the subject. Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean In the past both nominal/adjectival and auxiliary components agree with the object. Example: پاکول – compound transitive verb – to clean

Verbs: participle

Present participle

The present participle is formed with the past imperfective stem without ل (əl) + ونک (unk) and declension follows the pattern of unstressed ی (ay). Example ليکل [likəˈl] – writer → ليک [lik] past imperfective stem → ليکونکی [likəwúnkay] – writer

Past participle

Past participle suffix

The past participle employs the following stems. It is used in perfect constructions of the verb.

Present perfect

This is formed in the following ways: Category 1 [non-compound verbs]: Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be" Category 2 [compound verbs]: Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + present imperfective of "to be" Example: of Category 1 verb رسېدل

Future perfect

Formed by به [future marker] +present perfect

Past perfect

This is formed in the following ways: Category 1 [non-compound verbs]: Past imperfective stem + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be" Category 2 [compound verbs]: Past perfective stem of کېدل-ېدل and کول-ول + past participle suffix + past imperfective of "to be" Example:

Agreement

Example: Intransitive Category 2 verb پخېدل [to ripen, mature]

Verbs: potential construction

Optative

The imperfective optative = past imperfective base of verb+ ای-āy [Southern Dialects], ی-ay [North Western Dialects], ې [North Eastern Dialects] The perfective optative = past perfective base of verb+ ای-āy [Southern Dialects], ی-ay [North Western Dialects], ې [North Eastern Dialects]

Present potential

Formed by: Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل Example:

Past potential

Past potential 1

To indicate: Formed by: Imperfective optative + present perfective of کېدل Example:

Past potential 2

To indicate: Formed by: Perfective optative + past perfective of کېدل

Auxiliary: "to be"

The verb "to be" is irregular in Pashto and does not have an infinitive form.

Present imperfective

Present imperfective tense of "to be":

Present perfective form

Present perfective tense of "to be":

Past form

Past tense of "to be":

Future tense

In Pashto the future tense [ راتلونکی مهال] is the same as the present tense [اوسنی مهال] with the exception that in the future tense the marker به [bə] is added. In the third person future tense, also, irrespective of number or gender وي is used. Future tense of "to be":

Imperative Form

Also known as Command Form

"Wi" – usage

وي [wi] is also used; this is the third person singular and plural of the present tense of the verb to be. وي is used when an assumption or a given fact is being discussed where as دی/ده/دي are used reporting an observation. شته functions as "there is" in English.

Verbs: causative construction

This is used to make verbs that mean "to make (someone/something) do X" [where do X is the original verb]. Formation: verb stem + an affix و  /‑aw‑/. The causative can either use the present stem or past stem [and sometimes both] – depending on the original verb. Example:

Verbs: imperative form

This is used to make commands. The present stems of the verbs are used to make commands:

Number

The two verbal suffixes are employed: Example: The singular is told to one person; the plural is told to more than one person or as form of respectful command.

Positive command

Pashto positive imperative have two aspects: perfective (initial stress) an imperfective (final stress) In general the perfective aspect is used to make commands. However, for doubly irregular verbs, the imperfective aspect is used.

Intensive

The imperfective aspect in the imperative is also used to convey a sense of an urgent command example:

Compound verbs

Transitive

For compounds in the transitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the direct object. Where the is no object, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject

Intransitive

For compounds in the intransitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject

Negative command

Pashto Negative Imperatives only employs the Imperfective Aspect with stress on the particle مه /má/. Compare:

Prefixed verbs

North Eastern Pashto treats negative forms differently for prefixed verbs, placing the negative particle before the entire verb, whereas some other dialects place it between the prefix and the stem.

Verbs: phrasal verbs

These by adding noun to verbs to make verbs phrase-like meaning.

Verbalisers: Kawə́l and Kedə́l

These two verbs, کول and کېدل, are used to form compound verbs (denominal verbs). They use the irregular form in the perfective: without prefix و  /wə́/.

Kawə́l

Here are the forms of Kawə́l as a verbaliser [not a main verb]: As mentioned by Anna Boyle : ړ /ṛ/ in present perfective forms is written, and pronounced in careful speech, but is unpronounced in many dialect. She mentions that in past 3rd person, even the /ṛ/ can be dropped, since the personal suffixes differ from those in the present: past  ه /ə, a/ as opposed present ي /i/; thus revealing tense without need of ړ /ṛ/.

Kedə́l

Here are the forms of Kedə́l as a verbaliser [not a main verb]: As mentioned by Anna Boyle the 1st and 2nd person forms of Kedə́l are the same to those of the present perfective forms of "to be".

Future Tense

The future tense is formed with the addition of به /bә/; which has been defined by Tegey as a "future marker" and as a "modal clitic" by Boyle.

Future Expression

The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present perfective verb to convey future time event, speculation, or doubt. plār bә me paisé wә́leẓ̌i father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M My father will send money

With Present Imperfective Tense

The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present imperfective verb to convey future event – but with. different nuances explained below. plār bә me paisé léẓ̌i aw zә bә xwrә́ma father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M and I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT eat:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F My father will send money and I will (continue to) eat plār bә me paisé gā́nda léẓ̌i father:M:DIR will:FUT I:1:SG:WK money:F:DIR:PL tomorrow:F:DIR send:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M My father will send money tomorrow tә bә dzé zә bә pāte kéẓ̌әm you:2:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT go:CONT:PRS:2:SG I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT behind:F become:CONT:PRS:1:SG You'll be going, I'll be staying.

Negative Future Expressions

With Present Perfect Base, negative future expressions can be created with the negative marker نه /nә/ and future marker به /bә/.

First Conjugattion Class

Simple Verbs

If there is a grammatical subject or object: Subject/Object + به /bә/ + و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix mewá bә wә́ nə xwri fruit:F:SG:DIR will:FUT eat...:AOR:PRS:3 not:NEG ...eat:AOR:PRS:3 He/She/They will not eat the fruit If there is both a grammatical subject and object: Subject + به /bә/ + object+ و /wә́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix zә bә lik wә́ nə léẓ̌әm I:1:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT letter:SG:M:DIR send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG not:NEG ...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG I will not send the letter If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object: و /wә́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix wә́ bә nə gardzi walk...:AOR:PRS:3 will:FUT not:NEG ...walk:AOR:PRS:3 He/She/They will not walk

a-initial verbs

The و /wә́/ changes to وا /wā́/. Thereby: If there is a grammatical subject or object: Subject/Object + به /bә/ + وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix Verb: اخستل [axstә́l] mewá bә wā́ nə xli fruit:F:SG:DIR will:FUT buy...:AOR:PRS:3 not:NEG ...buy:AOR:PRS:3 He/She/They will not buy the fruit If there is both a grammatical subject and object: Subject + به /bә/ + object+ وا /wā́/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix Verb: استول [astawә́l] munẓ̌ bә lik wā́ nə stawu we:1:PL:STR:DIR will:FUT letter:SG:M:DIR send...:AOR:PRS:1:SG not:NEG ...send:AOR:PRS:1:SG We will not send the letter If there is no grammatical subject nor grammatical object: وا /wā́/ + به /bә/ + نه /nә/ + present verb stem + verbal suffix Verb: اچول [ačawә́l] wā́ bә nə čawe put...:AOR:PRS:2:SG will:FUT not:NEG ...put:AOR:PRS:2:SG You will not put it

Second Conjugation Class

First: Between the prefix and the verb base نه /nә́/ is placed Second: به /bә/ can then be placed Before verb: kor ta bә lāṛ nә́ šu house:M:SG:DIR to:POST will:FUT go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL not:NEG go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL We wont got to the house Or before the object (likely where there is a subject) muẓ̌ bə kor ta lāṛ nә́ šu we:1:PL:STR:DIR will:FUT house:M:SG:DIR to:POST go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL not:NEG go...:AOR:PRS:1:PL We wont got to the house

Third Conjugation Class

With compound verbs: نه /nә/ is inserted between the verb element and the noun/adjective element. Example: روغېدل [roğedә́l] tə bә róğa nə še you:2:SG:STR:DIR will:FUT recover...:F:ADJ:SG not:NEG ...become:AOR:PRS:2:SG You won't recover

"Bә" With Past Imperfective Tense

The marker به /bә/ is also used to convey habitual actions in the past. kála če bә hağә́ ḍol ğaẓ̌awә́ zә bә gaḍedә́m when that:COMP would he:3:SG:M:STR:OBL drum:SG:M:DIR sound:PST:3:SG:M I:1:SG:STR:DIR would dance:PST:1:SG When he would play the drum, I would dance

Adverbs

Adverbs that modify adjectives, verbs or verb phrases, and sentences; can be divided into the classes of time, place, manner, and degree. These adverbs can act alone or as part of an adpositional phrase. Acting alone: mə́xkx̌e rā́ğla before:ADV come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F She came earlier Acting as adipositional phrase: də māmā́ na mə́xkx̌e rā́ğla of maternal-uncle:DIR:M:SG from before:ADV come:AOR:PST:3:SG:F She came before (my) uncle

Adverbs of time

These include adverbs with time reference and quantifier-like items. Common adverbs of time: təl de xwdā́y lará always:ADV NEC god:DIR have:CONT:PRS:IMP:SG May God keep you (well/alive) forever!

Adverbs of place

This informs us where something takes place. Common adverbs of time: kx̌ə́ta kx̌éna underneath:ADV sit:AOR:PRS:IMP:SG Sit down.

Demonstrative pronouns

These are both adverbs and demonstrative pronouns Example sentence in Waziri: déle dzə̃ hereADV go:CONT:PRS:1:SG I am going here

Adpositions

Pashto has pre-positions, post-positions and pre-post-positions. Adpositions generally govern either oblique or ablative case assignment to their objects.

Prepositions

List of prepositions

Postpositions

Ambipositions

Pashto uses a significant amount of ambipositions (circumpositions). These usually have two elements, with the noun object positioned between the two elements. The initial element is likely to be one of these four elements: The final element is likely to be one of these words: Here is a list of the simple formations: Examples The first element must be dropped when the object of the pre-position is a weak pronoun. Examples: Sometimes in colloquial Pashto, the word له is dropped from نه and سره.

Phrases

Pashto consist of combinations of circumposition phrases and additional words.

With له.... نه

These use ambiposition له.... نه + additional word In some dialects له is replaced by د Examples

With د ... په

Examples: Examples: Note: the possessive phrase [də/د] can be substituted with a weak possessive pronoun.

Adpositions and noun cases

Oblique case

Most common case. The object [noun] of an adposition is most often assigned the oblique case. Used with: Example: سړی [using preposition د] and ښځه [using preposition په] are in oblique case; compare ملګری in direct case də saṛí malgə́ray pə x̌ə́dze oséẓ̌i of:PREP man:M:OBL friend:M:DIR on:PREP woman:F:OBL live:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M The man's friend lives on [his] wife Example: ما -oblique pronoun used with circumposition په...کښې pə mā ke da on:PREP me:1:SG:STR:OBL in:POST be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F She/it is in me

Ablative case

Used with: Example: circumposition '''تر ... پورې''' tər kóra póre tlә́m till:PREP house:M:ABL till:POST go:CONT:PST:1:SG I was going till the house With د /də/, having the object marked in the ablative case gives the sense of '(motion) away from': də kóra rā́ğləm from:COMIT house:M:ABL come:AOR:PST:1:SG I came from the house په /pə/ 'the instrumental usage + adjective: kor me pә grā́na joṛ kә́ṛay day house:M:DIR I:1:SG:WK with:INSTR difficult:ADJ:M:DIR make:M:DIR do:AOR:PTCP:M:DIR be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M I have made the house with difficulty

Mixed ablative case and oblique cases

Other adpositions can assign either oblique or ablative case to the object, without a difference in meaning. Example: with سړی in oblique case be saṛí kor tә́š wi without:PREP man:M:OBL house:M:DIR empty:ADJ:M be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M Without a man, a house is empty Example: with سړی in ablative case be saṛiya kor tә́š wi without:PREP man:M:ABL house:M:DIR empty:ADJ:M be:AOR:PRS:3:SG:M Without a man, a house is empty

Passive voice

Pashto does not have a distinguishable morphological passive construction. The construction identified by some comprises a special case of denominal verbs. The verbal part of the construction consists of a form of the verbaliser کېدل /kedә́l ('to become') and a verbal complement (in the infinitive form).The actor is expressed as the subject of the sentence, and that noun is case-marked direct and triggers verb agreement (in both past and present). pә x̌ār ke dә dwo wədānə́yo bənsáṭ kex̌awdə́l šo in:PREP city:M in:POST of:PREP two:F:PL:OBL building:F:PL:OBL foundation:M:DIR place:INF become:AOR:PST:3:SG:M The foundations of two buildings were laid in the city The auxiliary verb کېدل combined with the infinitive وهل: If the actor, if expressed, will most likely appear in an adpositional phrase governed by the circumposition د ...له خوا /də...lə xwā/ or د...له لورې /də...lə lure/. As with active sentences, the subject may be expressed through the verb agreement suffix alone dә x̌ә́źe lә xwā wahә́l kéẓ̌әm of:PREP woman:F:OBL from:PREP side:F:OBL beat:INF become:CONT:PRS:1:SG I am being beaten by the woman This construction may modify a noun; like most noun modifiers, it precedes the head. dә x̌ә́źe lә lúre likә́l sә́wi śeṛáne laṭawә́m of:PREP woman:F:OBL from:PREP side:F:OBL write:INF become:AOR:PST:PTCP:PL:M:DIR research:F:PL:DIR find:CONT:PRS:1:SG I am finding the studies that were written by the woman

Adverbial Clauses

Pashto utilises conjunction phrases as adverbs. Examples:

Particles

Anna Boyle Davids defines particles "any lexically free item that does not host inflection and that does not function as the argument or complement of a verb or adposition".

Existential

The word شته [shta] and its negative form نشته /nə́ šta/ is used to denote existence.

Modal Particles

Anna Boyle Davids defines these as: "...uninflected sentence-level modifiers. The clause within the scope of the particle may appear as a main clause or as a finite subordinate clause". چې can appear as a main clause and as a finite subordinate clause.

Affirmative

که نه

Affirmation questions and statements contain the affirmation particle: که نه /kə ná/ (literally: "if/or no"). Affirmative Question Example: lā́ṛe kə ná go:AOR:PST:2:SG or:PARTICLE no:NEG You went, didn't you? Affirmative Statement Example: ná kə ná no:NEG or:PARTICLE no:NEG No, of-course not; No, I didn't you know

Deontic

دې

The modal دې [de; Southern dialects: di] expresses a duty or obligation like "must " when used with the perfective tense of a verb. hağá de wә́gaḍegi he:3SG:STR:DIR NEC dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG He should/must dance

باید

The modal "bāyád" is also found in construction with the present perfective form of the verb. Tegey notes that like English "should" it carries ambiguity. hağá bāyád wә́gaḍegi he:3SG:STR:DIR NEC dance:AOR:PRS:3:SG He should dance

پکار دى

"Pəkā́r day" [it is needed] is also used as deontic clause pəkā́r day če tә də́lta rā́še necessary be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:M COMP you:2:SG:STR:DIR here:DEM come:AOR:PRS:2:SG You should come here

Emphatic

خو

The particle خو /xo/ appears in the second-position and denotes emphasis. dā xo manó da this:DIR xo:EMPH shark:F:DIR be:CONT:PRS:3:SG:F This is a shark! Note: as an emphatic خو /xo/ is considered to be different from the conjunction خو /xo/ 'but'.

Possibility

ښایي / ښائي

The particle x̌ā́yi is placed sentence-initially and can appear in construction with the complementizer چې [če] x̌ā́yi če sabā́ ta rā́ši maybe:PARTICLE that:COMP tomorrow:ADV to come:AOR:PRS:3 Maybe he/she will come tomorrow The particle x̌ā́yi can also demonstrate deonitic "should"

کېدی شي

Kedáy ši (could become) which potential construction of the verb "to become" – کېدل /kedә́l/ is also used as particle to denote possibility – again as above چې maybe used kedáy ši [če] sabā́ rā́ši become:CONT:PST:OPT become:AOR:PRS:3 [that:COMP] tomorrow:ADV come:AOR:PRS:3 Maybe/perhaps he/she will come tomorrow

Vocative

The following vocatives have been noted:

Wish

کاشکې

The particle کاشکې /kāške/ or کاشکي /kāški/ is used as English "if only"; to express wish or desire that something would happen or would have happened. It can be used with an optative verb, to express a counterfactual wish. kā́ške waxtí tlә́lay wāy if-only:PARTICLE early:ADV gone:AOR:PST:PTCP:M:DIR be:CONT:PST:OPT I wish you had gone earlier It can also be used with the present perfective verb, to express a polite request. Example, from Ghani Khan's poetry: hağé we xoẓ̌á dilbára kā́ske stā akә́l zmā ši she:3:F:STR:OBL say:CONT:PST:3 sweet:ADJ:M:VOC beloved:N:M:VOC if-only:PARTICLE your:2:SG:STR:POSS intelligence:N:M:DIR my:1:SG:STR:POSS become:AOR:PRS-PRS:3 She was saying oh sweet beloved, if only your intelligence be mine

Nuance

In this section the nuances or the semantics in relation to specific words will be explained.

راوړل and راوستل

Both راوستل /rāwastә́l/ and راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ are both transitive verbs denoting the meaning of "to bring"; but their nuance is different. راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is directly involved thus have the meaning more inline with "to bring and carry". راوستل /rāwastә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is causing the object to be brought but the object by its own motion is come thus having a meaning closer to "to bring along".

Tangible Objects

Example راوړل: obә́ me rā́wṛe water:N:F:DIR I:SG:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL I brought the water Explanation: Here the water is being brought by the speaker by his own hand or through a container e.g. by a glass Example راوستل: obә́ me rā́waste water:N:F:DIR I:SG:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:F:PL I brought the water Explanation: Here the water is being brought by the speaker as he/she has caused its bringing e.g. has made a canal/channel from the river bringing about the water

Intangible Objects

For intangible object راوستل /rāwastә́l/ is better suited; as the object or concepts comes by its own motion. parmәxtág ye rā́wast development:N:M:DIR 3:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG He/she/they brought development But for bringing "news", "omens/luck" or "diseases" راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ is used – perhaps as the subject is implied to carry it. x̌ə xabár de rā́waṛ good:ADJ news:N:M:DIR 2:WK bring:AOR:PST:3:M:SG You brought good news

Adjectives

As noted by Ghaza Noor, the choice of an adjective suffix can also have a change on the meaning. Example: اغېز – ağéz – effect [noun.masc.sing and plural]

Slang

Pashto also has rich slang language. Examples:

Syntax

Pashto has subject-object-verb (SOV) word order as opposed to English subject-verb-object (SVO) word order. In intransitive sentences where there is no object Pashto and English both have subject-verb (SV) word order. In Pashto, however, all modifiers precede the verb whereas in English most of the verbal modifiers follow the verb.

Phrasal syntax

Pashto exhibits strong head-final order in noun phrases and verb phrases.

Noun phrases

Pashto noun phrases generally exhibit the internal order determiner – quantifier – adjective – noun.

Adpositional phrases

The salient exception to the head-final principle can be found in adpositional phrases, given the existence of prepositions, postpositions, and circumpositions.

Verb phrases

Generally, head-final order is found also in the verb phrase, with the verb, if any, as the final element. Relative clauses and sentence-level modifiers may appear in postclausal position.

Light verb constructions

Pashto has a robust system of light verb constructions (LVC), two-word expressions that are semantically interpretable as a single predicate. Only one of the two canonical types—those of the form noun/adjective + verb (N-V). As verbs are a closed class in Pashto, the LVC is the only means of creating new verbal forms in the language; it is also used as a way of importing loanwords, with the borrowed word filling the complement slot. The inventory of light verbs in Pashto should not surprise anyone familiar with LVCs. In addition to the verbs کېدل /kedəl/ 'to become' and کول /kawəl/ 'to make; to do', which we refer to as the intransitive and transitive verbalisers when they act as light verbs, Pashto uses the verbs اخیستل /axistəl/ 'to take', وهل /wahəl/ 'to beat', نيول /niwəl/ 'to seize; to grasp', and ایستل /istəl/ 'to throw out' as light verbs. Adjective complements of N-V LVCs always show agreement with the undergoer of the action of the verb, which is in turn marked in accordance with Pashto's system of split ergativity. Nominal complements are usually treated as the direct object of the verb, and are therefore also case-marked according to split-ergative alignment. The undergoer of the action, on the other hand, cannot be a direct object, as the verb can have at most two arguments; it is instead indicated by an adposition and accordingly case-marked oblique.

Elements in the verbal group

The verbal group in general Pashto

Certain particles can be inserted between: The particles that interact with verbs in this way are: Modals, weak personal pronouns, and adverbials are all second-position clitics. They also obey strict rules of ordering relative to each other. Tegey (1977) reports the following ordering of enclitics between verbal components: خو /xo/> به /bə/> { مو /mo/| مې /me/| دې /de/| یې /ye/} > نو /no/. If the first syllable of the verb does not carry stress (that is, if it is an imperfective form), the negative precedes the verb, and the clitics follow the negative. Also, if a perfective form is negated, the negative marker—not the initial syllable of the verb—takes the stress.

Negative placement in the perfective verb phrase

The negative particle نه /ná/ nearly always precedes the verb and is placed as close to the verb stem as possible. In perfective constructions, it therefore follows the perfective marker و /wə/ for simplex verbs, and either initial /a/, the prefix, or the light verb complement for complex verbs. Because it carries an inherent stress, it takes the main stress in a perfective verb phrase.

Numbers

Cardinal numbers

Direct case, masculine

Ordinal numbers

Direct case, masc., sing.