Pahari-Pothwari is an Indo-Aryan language variety of Lahnda group, spoken on the Pothohar Plateau in the far north of Punjab, Pakistan, as well as in most of Pakistan-administered Azad Kashmir and in western areas of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir, is known by a variety of names, the most common of which are Pahari (an ambiguous name also applied to other unrelated languages of India), and Pothwari (or Pothohari). The language is transitional between Hindko and Standard Punjabi and is mutually intelligible with both. There have been efforts at cultivation as a literary language, although a local standard has not been established yet. The Shahmukhi script is used to write the language, such as in the works of Punjabi poet Mian Muhammad Bakhsh. Grierson in his early 20th-century Linguistic Survey of India assigned it to a so-called "Northern cluster" of Lahnda (Western Punjabi), but this classification, as well as the validity of the Lahnda grouping in this case, have been called into question. In a sense both Pothwari, as well as other Lahnda varieties, and Standard Punjabi are "dialects" of a "Greater Punjabi" macrolanguage.

Geographic distribution and dialects

There are at least three major dialects: Pothwari, Mirpuri and Pahari. The dialects are mutually intelligible, but the difference between the northernmost and the southernmost dialects (from Muzaffarabad and Mirpur respectively) is enough to cause difficulties in understanding.

Pothohar Plateau

Pothwari, also spelt Potwari, Potohari and Pothohari , is spoken in the Pothohar Plateau of northern Punjab, an area administratively within Rawalpindi division. Pothwari is its most common name, and some call it Pindiwal Punjabi to differentiate it from the Punjabi spoken elsewhere in Punjab. Pothwari extends southwards up to the Salt Range, with the city of Jhelum marking the border with Majha Punjabi. To the north, Pothwari transitions into the Pahari-speaking area, with Bharakao, near Islamabad, generally regarded as the point where Pothwari ends and Pahari begins. Pothwari has been represented as a dialect of Punjabi by the Punjabi language movement, and in census reports the Pothwari areas of Punjab have been shown as Punjabi-majority. Among the dialects of the Pahari-Pothwari dialect cluster, the variety spoken on the Pothohar is the only native language in the Rawalpindi division and it is ethno-linguistic group. This Pothwari is also regarded as the most prestigious dialect spoken in the region.

Mirpur

East of the Pothwari areas, across the Jhelum River into Mirpur District in Azad Kashmir, the language is more similar to Pothwari than to the Pahari spoken in the rest of Azad Kashmir. Locally it is known by a variety of names: Pahari, Mirpur Pahari, Mirpuri, and Pothwari, while some of its speakers call it Punjabi. Mirpuris possess a strong sense of Kashmiri identity that overrides linguistic identification with closely related groups outside Azad Kashmir, such as the Pothwari Punjabis. The Mirpur region has been the source of the greater part of Pakistani immigration to the UK, a process that started when thousands were displaced by the construction of the Mangla Dam in the 1960s and emigrated to fill labour shortages in England. The British Mirpuri diaspora now numbers several hundred thousand, and Pahari has been argued to be the second most common mother tongue in the UK, yet the language is little known in the wider society there and its status has remained surrounded by confusion.

Kashmir, Murree and the Galyat

Pahari is spoken to the north of Pothwari. The central cluster of Pahari dialects is found around Murree. This area is in the Galyat: the hill country of Murree Tehsil in the northeast of Rawalpindi District (just north of the capital Islamabad) and the adjoining areas in southeastern Abbottabad District. One name occasionally found in the literature for this language is Dhundi-Kairali (Ḍhūṇḍī-Kaiṛālī), a term first used by Grierson who based it on the names of the two major tribes of the area – the Kairal and the Dhund. Its speakers call it Pahari in Murree tehsil, while in Abbottabad district it is known as either Hindko or Ḍhūṇḍī. Nevertheless, Hindko – properly the language of the rest of Abbottabad District and the neighbouring areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa – is generally regarded as a different language. It forms a dialect continuum with Pahari, and the transition between the two is in northern Azad Kashmir and in the Galyat region. For example, on the road from Murree northwest towards the city of Abbottabad, Pahari gradually changes into Hindko between Ayubia and Nathiagali. A closely related dialect is spoken across the Jhelum River in Azad Kashmir, north of the Mirpuri areas. Names associated in the literature with this dialect are Pahari (itself the term most commonly used by the speakers themselves), Chibhālī, named after the Chibhal region or the Chibh ethnic group, and Pahari (Poonchi) (, also spelt Punchhi). The latter name has been variously applied to either the Chibhali variety specific to the district of Poonch, or to the dialect of the whole northern half of Azad Kashmir. This dialect (or dialects) has been seen either as a separate dialect from the one in Murree, or as belonging to the same central group of Pahari dialects. The dialect of the district of Bagh, for example, has more shared vocabulary with the core dialects from Murree (86–88%) than with the varieties of either Muzaffarabad (84%) or Mirpur (78%). In Muzaffarabad the dialect shows lexical similarity of 83–88% with the central group of Pahari dialects, which is high enough for the authors of the sociolinguistic survey to classify it is a central dialect itself, but low enough to warrant noting its borderline status. The speakers however tend to call their language Hindko and to identify more with the Hindko spoken to the west, despite the lower lexical similarity (73–79%) with the core Hindko dialects of Abbottabad and Mansehra. Further north into the Neelam Valley the dialect, now known locally as Parmi, becomes closer to Hindko. Pahari is also spoken further east across the Line of Control into the Pir Panjal mountains in Indian Jammu and Kashmir. The population, estimated at 1 million, is found in the region between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers: most significantly in the districts of Poonch and Rajouri, to a lesser extent in neighbouring Baramulla and Kupwara, and also – as a result of the influx of refugees during the Partition of 1947 – scattered throughout the rest of Jammu and Kashmir. Pahari is among the regional languages listed in the sixth schedule of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir. This Pahari is sometimes conflated with the Western Pahari languages spoken in the mountainous region in the south-east of Indian Jammu and Kashmir. These languages, which include Bhadarwahi and its neighbours, are often called "Pahari", although not same they are closely related to Pahari–Pothwari.

Diaspora

Pahari-Pothwari is also very widely spoken in the United Kingdom. Labour shortages after World War II, and the displacement of peoples caused by the construction of the Mangla Dam, facilitated extensive migration of Pahari-Pothwari speakers to the UK during the 1950s and 1960s, especially from the Mirpur District. Academics estimate that between two thirds and 80% of people officially classified as British Pakistanis originate as part of this diaspora, with some suggesting that it is the second most spoken language of the United Kingdom, ahead of even Welsh, with hundreds of thousands of speakers. However, since there is little awareness of the identity of the language among speakers, census results do not reflect this. The highest proportions of Pahari-Pothwari speakers are found in urban centres, especially the West Midlands conurbation and the West Yorkshire Built-up Area.

Phonology

Vowels

A long diphthong /ɑi/ can be realized as.

Consonants

Grammar and notable features

Future Tense

The future tense in Pothwari is formed by adding -s as opposed to the Eastern Punjabi gā. This tense is also used in other Western Punjabi dialects such as the Jatki dialects, Shahpuri, Jhangochi and Dhanni, as well as in and Hindko and Saraiki. This type of future tense was also used by classical Punjabi poets. Punjabi poet Bulleh Shah sometimes uses a similar form of future tense in his poetry Shahmukhi: جو کُجھ کَرسین, سو کُجھ پاسیں Transliteration: Jo kujh karsãi, so kujh paasãi Translation: Whatsoever you do, is what you shall gain

• From one of Bulleh Shah's poems

Continuous Tense

Similar to other Punjabi varieties, Pothwari uses peyā (past tense form of pēṇā) to signify the continuous tense.

Present Continuous

Past Continuous

The past tense in Pothwari resembles that of Eastern Punjabi, however depending on the dialect, there may be slight variations. The place of "pyā" may sometimes be switched with respect to the verb. This is common in Majhi (e.g: Noor Jehan's "Chann Māhi Teri Rāh Pyi Takkni Aā̃) and as well as in Jhangochi, Shahpuri, etc "Tusā̃ báhū̃ changā kamm karne ò pa'e", meaning "You (plural/sing. formal) are doing a very good thing" "Mē̃ vī tā̃ éhe gall ākhnā sā̃ peyā", meaning "I was also saying the same thing" "Mē̃ vī tā̃ ehe gall peyā ākhnā ā̃̀", meaning "I am also saying the same thing"

Common prepositions, adjectives and adverbs

These are typically the same in Pothohari and Standard Punjabi, but some differences can be noted.

Prepositions and adverbs:

Note:

Adjectives:

Tribal groupings

Pahari-Pothwari speakers belong to the same tribes found in Punjab. While the names of the tribes remain the same, the Punjabi word for tribe Birādrī/Barādarī becomes Bilādrī/Balādarī in Pahari-Pothwari and several other Punjabi dialects such as Jatki/Shahpuri.

Numbering system

Pahari-Pothwari follows the numbering traditions of Standard Punjabi. A point of departure from Eastern Punjabi dialects occurs in the use of Trai instead of Tinn for the number 3. Other Western Punjabi dialects also tend to use trai over tinn. Similarly, Pothwari, Majhi and other Western Punjabi dialects use "Yārā̃" (یاراں) for "Gyarā̃" (گیاراں), "Trei" (ترئی) for "Tei" (تئی) "Panji" (پنجِی) for "Pachchi" (پچّی) and "Trih" (ترِیہہ) for "Tih" (تِیہہ), for the numbers 11, 23, 25, and 30. Unlike Jhangochi, Shahpuri and Dhanni Punjabi dialects, Pothohari does not use "Dāh" for 10, and instead uses "Das" as in Eastern Punjabi and Urdu/Hindi.

Oblique form

The numbers in their oblique form function the same throughout Punjabi dialects.

Ordinals

The ordinal numbers are largely the same. The only difference occurs in the words for Second and Third. Second is Doowa (دووا) in Pothwari, whilst it is Dooja (دوجا) in Punjabi. Likewise Third is Treeya (تریا) in Pothwari whilst it is Teeja (تیجا) in Punjabi. Western Punjabi in general tends to follow this trend.

Pronouns

Direct case

Oblique Case

Pronominal suffixes Pothohari makes use of the general Punjabi suffixes.

Vocative case

These cases remain the same between Pothohari and other dialects. As example of the vocative case:

Dative and definite object marker

The dative and definite object marker in Pothwari is kī (ਕੀ /کی) as opposed to nū̃ (ਨੂੰ / نوں) in Standard Punjabi. Hence, the objective personal pronouns would be as follows:

Genitive marker

The genitive marker in Pahari-Pothwari is represented through the use of nā (ਨਾ / ) as opposed to dā (ਦਾ / ) in common Punjabi. It should also be noted that in Pahari-Pothwari, the present form of verb does not end with the standard dā sound either, and is replaced with nā. This means that ākhdā would be ākhnā in Pahari-Pothwari meaning "to say" and similarly the word takkdā would be takknā in Pahari-Pothwari meaning "to look/to watch". For example: Note: In Punjabi dialects (e.g: Majhi, Jhangochi) it is not uncommon for the present tense to shift from "dā" to "nā " when in first person singular, first person plural and second person singular. In these cases all dialects end up utilizing the "nā " form of verb. An example would be Noor Jehan's "Chann Māhi Tere Rāh Pyi Takkni Aā̃". (instead of Takkdi)

This also affects some of the genitive pronouns.

Oblique case of nouns

Pahari-Pothwari has unique forms for nouns in oblique cases. This is not observed in Standard Punjabi, but is seen in Hindko.

Adding "i" to root form of verb

A peculiar feature of Pahari-Pothwari is to end the basic root form of verbs with an "i" sound.

Vocabulary

General verbs

A majority of the general verbs between Pothohari and most other dialects of Punjabi appears to be the same. Note:

The passives remain the same throughout Punjabi dialects

The irregular past tense remains the same throughout Punjabi dialects

Differences in brackets.

Nā and Khā̃

Used throughout Punjabi dialects (e.g: Majhi, Jhangochi, etc) Word for sleep

Family relations

The names of family relations are mostly the same throughout the Punjabi dialects. Some words unique to Pothohari include:

Body part names

Names of body parts are the same throughout Punjabi dialects with minimal differences if any.

Words for "Coming" and "Going"

The Pahari-Pothwari word for "coming" is acchṇā**, whereas for "going" gacchṇā****, **julṇā and jāṇā are used. The imperative for gacchṇā is both gacch and gau.

Causative verbs

Pahari-Pothwari causative verbs end with -ālnā. This feature also exists in the Eastern Majhi dialect. (e.g: Vikhālṇā)

• Notes Not all causative verbs are formed like this, e.g. to play -kheṛṇā to khaṛāṇa,

Words used for "Taking" and "Bringing"

Commonly observed in the Lahnda dialects is the use of Ghinṇā and Aaṇnā instead of the Eastern Punjabi words Laiṇā and Lyāṇā. Notice how Ghin āo becomes Ghini achho, and Ghin ghidā becomes Ghini ghidā in accordance with Pothwari grammar and vocabulary.

Interrogative words

Pahari-Pothwari vocabulary similarities with other Western Punjabi dialects