In mathematics, more specifically in topology, an open map is a function between two topological spaces that maps open sets to open sets. That is, a function f : X \to Y is open if for any open set U in X, the image f(U) is open in Y. Likewise, a closed map is a function that maps closed sets to closed sets. A map may be open, closed, both, or neither; in particular, an open map need not be closed and vice versa. Open and closed maps are not necessarily continuous. Further, continuity is independent of openness and closedness in the general case and a continuous function may have one, both, or neither property; this fact remains true even if one restricts oneself to metric spaces. Although their definitions seem more natural, open and closed maps are much less important than continuous maps. Recall that, by definition, a function f : X \to Y is continuous if the preimage of every open set of Y is open in X. (Equivalently, if the preimage of every closed set of Y is closed in X). Early study of open maps was pioneered by Simion Stoilow and Gordon Thomas Whyburn.

Definitions and characterizations

If S is a subset of a topological space then let and (resp. ) denote the closure (resp. interior) of S in that space. Let f : X \to Y be a function between topological spaces. If S is any set then is called the image of S under f.

Competing definitions

There are two different competing, but closely related, definitions of "" that are widely used, where both of these definitions can be summarized as: "it is a map that sends open sets to open sets." The following terminology is sometimes used to distinguish between the two definitions. A map f : X \to Y is called a Every strongly open map is a relatively open map. However, these definitions are not equivalent in general. A surjective map is relatively open if and only if it is strongly open; so for this important special case the definitions are equivalent. More generally, a map f : X \to Y is relatively open if and only if the surjection is a strongly open map. Because X is always an open subset of X, the image of a strongly open map f : X \to Y must be an open subset of its codomain Y. In fact, a relatively open map is a strongly open map if and only if its image is an open subset of its codomain. In summary, By using this characterization, it is often straightforward to apply results involving one of these two definitions of "open map" to a situation involving the other definition. The discussion above will also apply to closed maps if each instance of the word "open" is replaced with the word "closed".

Open maps

A map f : X \to Y is called an **' or a **' if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions:

<ol> <li>Definition: f : X \to Y maps open subsets of its domain to open subsets of its codomain; that is, for any open subset U of X, f(U) is an open subset of Y.</li> <li>f : X \to Y is a relatively open map and its image is an open subset of its codomain Y.</li> <li>For every x \in X and every [neighborhood](https://bliptext.com/articles/neighborhood-topology) N of x (however small), f(N) is a [neighborhood](https://bliptext.com/articles/neighborhood-topology) of f(x). We can replace the first or both instances of the word "neighborhood" with "open neighborhood" in this condition and the result will still be an equivalent condition: <li> for all subsets A of X, where denotes the [topological interior](https://bliptext.com/articles/topological-interior) of the set.</li> <li>Whenever C is a [closed subset](https://bliptext.com/articles/closed-set) of X then the set is a [closed subset](https://bliptext.com/articles/closed-set) of Y. </ol> If \mathcal{B} is a [basis](https://bliptext.com/articles/base-topology) for X then the following can be appended to this list:

Closed maps

A map f : X *to*** Y is**** called**** a **** if**** whenever**** C is**** a closed**** subset**** of**** the domain**** X then**** f(C)**** is**** a closed**** subset**** of**** f's image where as**** usual,**** this**** set is**** endowed with**** the subspace**** topology**** induced on**** it**** by**** f's codomain**** Y.**** A map f : X \to Y is called a **' or a **' if it satisfies any of the following equivalent conditions:

<ol> <li>Definition: f : X \to Y maps closed subsets of its domain to closed subsets of its codomain; that is, for any closed subset C of X, f(C) is a closed subset of Y. <li>f : X \to Y is a relatively closed map and its image is a closed subset of its codomain Y.</li> <li> for every subset </li> <li> for every closed subset </li> <li> for every closed subset </li> <li>Whenever U is an open subset of X then the set is an open subset of Y.</li> <li>If x_{\bull} is a [net](https://bliptext.com/articles/net-mathematics) in X and y \in Y is a point such that in Y, then x_{\bull} converges in X to the set f^{-1}(y). </ol> A [surjective](https://bliptext.com/articles/surjective-function) map is strongly closed if and only if it is relatively closed. So for this important special case, the two definitions are equivalent. By definition, the map f : X \to Y is a relatively closed map if and only if the [surjection](https://bliptext.com/articles/surjective-function) is a strongly closed map. If in the open set definition of "[continuous map](https://bliptext.com/articles/continuous-function)" (which is the statement: "every preimage of an open set is open"), both instances of the word "open" are replaced with "closed" then the statement of results ("every preimage of a closed set is closed") is to continuity. This does not happen with the definition of "open map" (which is: "every image of an open set is open") since the statement that results ("every image of a closed set is closed") is the definition of "closed map", which is in general equivalent to openness. There exist open maps that are not closed and there also exist closed maps that are not open. This difference between open/closed maps and continuous maps is ultimately due to the fact that for any set S, only is guaranteed in general, whereas for preimages, equality always holds.

Examples

The function defined by f(x) = x^2 is continuous, closed, and relatively open, but not (strongly) open. This is because if U = (a, b) is any open interval in f's domain \R that does contain 0 then where this open interval is an open subset of both \R and However, if U = (a, b) is any open interval in \R that contains 0 then which is not an open subset of f's codomain \R but an open subset of Because the set of all open intervals in \R is a basis for the Euclidean topology on \R, this shows that is relatively open but not (strongly) open. If Y has the discrete topology (that is, all subsets are open and closed) then every function f : X \to Y is both open and closed (but not necessarily continuous). For example, the floor function from \R to \Z is open and closed, but not continuous. This example shows that the image of a connected space under an open or closed map need not be connected. Whenever we have a product of topological spaces the natural projections are open (as well as continuous). Since the projections of fiber bundles and covering maps are locally natural projections of products, these are also open maps. Projections need not be closed however. Consider for instance the projection on the first component; then the set is closed in \R^2, but is not closed in \R. However, for a compact space Y, the projection is closed. This is essentially the tube lemma. To every point on the unit circle we can associate the angle of the positive x-axis with the ray connecting the point with the origin. This function from the unit circle to the half-open interval [0,2π) is bijective, open, and closed, but not continuous. It shows that the image of a compact space under an open or closed map need not be compact. Also note that if we consider this as a function from the unit circle to the real numbers, then it is neither open nor closed. Specifying the codomain is essential.

Sufficient conditions

Every homeomorphism is open, closed, and continuous. In fact, a bijective continuous map is a homeomorphism if and only if it is open, or equivalently, if and only if it is closed. The composition of two (strongly) open maps is an open map and the composition of two (strongly) closed maps is a closed map. However, the composition of two relatively open maps need not be relatively open and similarly, the composition of two relatively closed maps need not be relatively closed. If f : X \to Y is strongly open (respectively, strongly closed) and g : Y \to Z is relatively open (respectively, relatively closed) then is relatively open (respectively, relatively closed). Let f : X \to Y be a map. Given any subset if f : X \to Y is a relatively open (respectively, relatively closed, strongly open, strongly closed, continuous, surjective) map then the same is true of its restriction to the f-saturated subset f^{-1}(T). The categorical sum of two open maps is open, or of two closed maps is closed. The categorical product of two open maps is open, however, the categorical product of two closed maps need not be closed. A bijective map is open if and only if it is closed. The inverse of a bijective continuous map is a bijective open/closed map (and vice versa). A surjective open map is not necessarily a closed map, and likewise, a surjective closed map is not necessarily an open map. All local homeomorphisms, including all coordinate charts on manifolds and all covering maps, are open maps. A variant of the closed map lemma states that if a continuous function between locally compact Hausdorff spaces is proper then it is also closed. In complex analysis, the identically named open mapping theorem states that every non-constant holomorphic function defined on a connected open subset of the complex plane is an open map. The invariance of domain theorem states that a continuous and locally injective function between two n-dimensional topological manifolds must be open. In functional analysis, the open mapping theorem states that every surjective continuous linear operator between Banach spaces is an open map. This theorem has been generalized to topological vector spaces beyond just Banach spaces. A surjective map f : X \to Y is called an **' if for every y \in Y there exists some such that x is a **' for f, which by definition means that for every open neighborhood U of x, f(U) is a neighborhood of f(x) in Y (note that the neighborhood f(U) is not required to be an neighborhood). Every surjective open map is an almost open map but in general, the converse is not necessarily true. If a surjection is an almost open map then it will be an open map if it satisfies the following condition (a condition that does depend in any way on Y's topology \sigma): If the map is continuous then the above condition is also necessary for the map to be open. That is, if f : X \to Y is a continuous surjection then it is an open map if and only if it is almost open and it satisfies the above condition.

Properties

Open or closed maps that are continuous

If f : X \to Y is a continuous map that is also open closed then: In the first two cases, being open or closed is merely a sufficient condition for the conclusion that follows. In the third case, it is necessary as well.

Open continuous maps

If f : X \to Y is a continuous (strongly) open map, and then:

<ul> <li> where denotes the [boundary](https://bliptext.com/articles/boundary-topology) of a set.</li> <li> where denote the [closure](https://bliptext.com/articles/closure-topology) of a set.</li> <li>If where denotes the [interior](https://bliptext.com/articles/interior-topology) of a set, then where this set is also necessarily a [regular closed set](https://bliptext.com/articles/regular-closed-set) (in Y). In particular, if A is a regular closed set then so is And if A is a [regular open set](https://bliptext.com/articles/regular-open-set) then so is </li> <li>If the continuous open map f : X \to Y is also surjective then and moreover, S is a regular open (resp. a regular closed) subset of Y if and only if f^{-1}(S) is a regular open (resp. a regular closed) subset of X. </li> <li>If a [net](https://bliptext.com/articles/net-mathematics) [converges](https://bliptext.com/articles/convergent-net) in Y to a point y \in Y and if the continuous open map f : X \to Y is surjective, then for any there exists a [net](https://bliptext.com/articles/net-mathematics) in X (indexed by some [directed set](https://bliptext.com/articles/directed-set) A) such that in X and is a sub[net](https://bliptext.com/articles/net-mathematics) of y_{\bull}. Moreover, the indexing set A may be taken to be with the [product order](https://bliptext.com/articles/product-order) where is any [neighbourhood basis](https://bliptext.com/articles/neighbourhood-basis) of x directed by </li> </ul>

Citations