{"history":[],"article":{"id":"f61c2079-da24-4227-a427-c95877d62858","title":"Milkfish","slug":"milkfish","content":":::summary\n![Milkfish](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Chanidae///-///Chanos///chanos.JPG)\n**Name:** Milkfish \n**Fossil Range:** [Early Eocene](https://bliptext.com/articles/early-eocene)–present \n**Status:** LC \n**Status System:** IUCN3.1 \n**Image Caption:** [French Polynesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/french-polynesia) \n**Image 2:** Milkfish (Chanos chanos) locally called 'bangus' in a Philippine market.jpg \n**Image 2 Caption:** Milkfish (locally bangús) in a [Philippine](https://bliptext.com/articles/philippine) [fish market](https://bliptext.com/articles/fish-market) \n**Genus:** Chanos \n**Parent Authority:** [Lacépède](https://bliptext.com/articles/bernard-germain-tienne-de-la-ville-comte-de-lac-p-de), 1803 \n**Display Parents:** 2 \n**Species:** chanos \n**Authority:** ([Forsskål](https://bliptext.com/articles/peter-forssk-l), 1775) \n**Synonyms:** Butirinus argenteus [Jerdon](https://bliptext.com/articles/thomas-c-jerdon), 1849 · Butirinus maderaspatensis [Jerdon](https://bliptext.com/articles/thomas-c-jerdon), 1849 · Chanos arabicus [Lacepède](https://bliptext.com/articles/bernard-germain-de-lac-p-de), 1803 · Chanos chloropterus [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos cyprinella [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos gardineri [Regan](https://bliptext.com/articles/charles-tate-regan), 1902 · Chanos indicus ([van Hasselt](https://bliptext.com/articles/johan-coenraad-van-hasselt), 1823) · Chanos lubina [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos mento [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos mossambicus ([Peters](https://bliptext.com/articles/wilhelm-peters), 1852) · Chanos nuchalis [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos orientalis [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos salmoneus ([Forster](https://bliptext.com/articles/johann-reinhold-forster), 1801) · Chanos salmonoides Günther, 1879 · Cyprinus pala [Cuvier](https://bliptext.com/articles/georges-cuvier), 1829 · Cyprinus palah ([Cuvier](https://bliptext.com/articles/georges-cuvier), 1829) · Cyprinus tolo [Cuvier](https://bliptext.com/articles/georges-cuvier), 1829 · Leuciscus palah [Cuvier](https://bliptext.com/articles/georges-cuvier), 1829 · Leuciscus salmoneus ([Forster](https://bliptext.com/articles/johann-reinhold-forster), 1801) · Leuciscus zeylonicus [Bennett](https://bliptext.com/articles/edward-turner-bennett), 1833 · Lutodeira chanos ([Forsskål](https://bliptext.com/articles/peter-forssk-l), 1775) · Lutodeira chloropterus ([Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847) · Lutodeira indica [van Hasselt](https://bliptext.com/articles/johan-coenraad-van-hasselt), 1823 · Lutodeira mossambica [Peters](https://bliptext.com/articles/wilhelm-peters), 1852 · Lutodeira mossambicus [Peters](https://bliptext.com/articles/wilhelm-peters), 1852 · Lutodeira salmonea ([Forster](https://bliptext.com/articles/johann-reinhold-forster), 1801) · Mugil chanos [Forsskål](https://bliptext.com/articles/peter-forssk-l), 1775 · Mugil salmoneus [Forster](https://bliptext.com/articles/johann-reinhold-forster), 1801 \n:::\n\n# \nThe **milkfish** (**Chanos chanos**) is a widespread species of [ray-finned fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/actinopterygii) found throughout the [Indo-Pacific](https://bliptext.com/articles/indo-pacific).\nIt is the sole living [species](https://bliptext.com/articles/species) in the [family](https://bliptext.com/articles/family-biology) [Chanidae](https://bliptext.com/articles/chanidae), and the only living member of the genus **Chanos**.\nThe repeating scientific name ([tautonym](https://bliptext.com/articles/tautonym)) is from Greek ( ‘mouth’).\nThey are grouped in the order **Gonorhynchiformes** and are most closely related to the [Ostariophysi](https://bliptext.com/articles/ostariophysi)—freshwater fishes such as carps, catfish, and loaches.\nThe species has many common names.\nThe [Hawaiian](https://bliptext.com/articles/hawaiian-language) name for the fish is awa, and in [Tahitian](https://bliptext.com/articles/tahitian-language) it is ava.\nIt is called bangús in the [Philippines](https://bliptext.com/articles/philippines), where it is popularly known as the [national fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/national-animal), although the [National Commission for Culture and the Arts](https://bliptext.com/articles/national-commission-for-culture-and-the-arts) has stated that this is not the case as it has no basis in Philippine law.\nIn the [Nauruan language](https://bliptext.com/articles/nauruan-language), it is referred to as.\nMilkfish is also called bandeng or bolu in [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia).\nThe following are common names for milkfish by country:\n

Philippines: bangus, bangrus, banglus, banglot, banglis, sabalo, awa
Indonesia: ikan bandeng, baulo, bolu, balanak sembawa
Burma: ga-tin
Malaysia: bandang, jangos, pisong-pisong
Sri Lanka: plai-meen, vaikka
Thailand: pla nua chan
S. India: pal-meen
S. Vietnam: ca mang
Iraq binni: al-bahr
Taiwan: sabahee
Hawaii: awa-awa
Japan: sabahee
Mexico: sabalo

\n\n# Geographic Distribution\nChanos chanos occurs in the [Indian Ocean](https://bliptext.com/articles/indian-ocean) and across the [Pacific Ocean](https://bliptext.com/articles/pacific-ocean), from South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, from California to the Galapagos, north to Japan, south to Australia.\nA single specimen was reported in 2012 in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.\nIn 1877, the [California Fish and Game Commission](https://bliptext.com/articles/california-fish-and-game-commission) introduced one hundred milkfish from Hawaii to the inland waters of [Solano County, California](https://bliptext.com/articles/solano-county-california).\nThe introduced population could not establish itself permanently and it’s currently unknown how their presence affected the native ecosystem.\nMilkfishes commonly live in tropical offshore marine waters around islands and along continental shelves, at depths of 1 to 30 m. They also frequently enter estuaries and rivers.\n# [Estimated geographical range of Chanos in the Indo-Pacific | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Indo-Pacific///map///outlines///with///ASEAN///overlay.jpg]\n\n# Taxonomy\nChanos is the only surviving genus of the ancient family [Chanidae](https://bliptext.com/articles/chanidae), which has existed since the [Early Cretaceous](https://bliptext.com/articles/early-cretaceous).\nThe only surviving species is the widespread C. chanos.\nSeveral fossil species of Chanos are known from the [Paleogene](https://bliptext.com/articles/paleogene) of the [Tethys](https://bliptext.com/articles/tethys-ocean) and [North Seas](https://bliptext.com/articles/north-sea), dating as far back as the earliest [Eocene](https://bliptext.com/articles/eocene).\nThe earliest fossil Chanos were found in freshwater Eocene deposits in Europe and North America—hinting that the species first appeared in freshwater environments 40–50 million years ago.\nIt’s possible that their invasion into the ocean happened during high sea-level or flooding events after the Eocene.\nGlobal cooling during the Mid-Eocene likely wiped out the population of milkfish in the Atlantic, but the species persisted in the Indo-Pacific.\nThe following fossil species of Chanos are known:\nThe extinct [Caeus leopoldi](https://bliptext.com/articles/caeus) from the [Early Cretaceous](https://bliptext.com/articles/early-cretaceous) ([Albian](https://bliptext.com/articles/albian)) of Italy is also sometimes placed in Chanos as Chanos leopoldi, which would be the earliest record of the genus and extend its occurrence even further back.\nHowever, more recent studies have affirmed it being a distinct genus.\n\n# Anatomy\nThe milkfish can grow to 1.80 m, but are most often no more than 1 m in length.\nThey can reach a weight of about 14 kg. and an age of 15 years.\nThey have an elongated and almost compressed body, with a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, one dorsal fin, falcate pectoral fins and a sizable forked [caudal fin](https://bliptext.com/articles/caudal-fin).\nThe head is small relative to the body.\nThe mouth is small and toothless.\nThe body is olive green, with silvery flanks and dark bordered fins.\nThey have 13–17 dorsal soft rays, 8–10 anal soft rays and 31 caudal fin rays.\nThere are numerous fine intramuscular bones, which may complicate human consumption of the fish (see \"Consumption\" below).\nTheir silvery complexion is similar to many other fish species of the Indo-Pacific.\nThey are often mistaken for species of Clupeidae, Megalops cyprinoides, Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus, and Elops machnata.\nChanos can be distinguished from these species by their size, absence of scutes, tubercle on the lower jaw, fin placement, no gular plate between arms of the lower jaw, and having only four branchiostegal rays.\nVariant milkfish body types have occasionally been found.\nThe ‘goldfish-type’ milkfish was discovered in the Philippines and is characterized by distinctly elongated dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins, and a caudal fin as long as the body.\nIn Hawaii, Indonesia, and Australia, dwarf or hunchback ‘shad-type’ specimens have been recorded.\nThey have a standard length-to-depth ratio of 2.0-2.5 instead of the usual 3.5-4.0.\nIn Northern Australia, a milkfish with a red head, red fins, and blue dorsal coloration was reported.\n# [Chanos chanos | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Chanos///chanos///Hakone.jpg]\n\n# Life History\nReproduction of milkfish in nature is far less understood than populations of milkfish bred and propagated in captivity (see \"Aquaculture\" below).\nIn the wild, milkfish take 3–5 years to mature.\nFemales can produce 0.5-6 million eggs and have the ability to spawn more than once a year.\nSpawning takes place at night, may be lunar periodic, and is strongly seasonal.\nMilkfish eggs are [pelagic](https://bliptext.com/articles/pelagic) and range between 1.1–1.25 mm in diameter.\nSpawning sites are clear, warm, shallow waters above sand or coral reefs.\nIt is believed milkfish prefer these locations to minimize predation from benthic [planktivores](https://bliptext.com/articles/planktivores).\nMilkfish larvae have a pelagic planktonic stage.\nYounger larvae occur mostly at the surface, or sometimes deeper (20–30m).\nOlder larvae are only found at the surface and in near-shore environments.\nLarvae metamorphose into fry and become benthic-feeding juveniles that are opportunistically [herbivorous](https://bliptext.com/articles/herbivorous), [detritivorous](https://bliptext.com/articles/detritivorous), or [omnivorous](https://bliptext.com/articles/omnivorous), depending on the predominant food types in the habitat.\nJuvenile milkfish larger than 20mm typically bear the characteristics of adults.\nThey have complete fin rays, a forked caudal fin, scales, and silvery coloration.\nJuveniles have been found to inhabit a diverse range of shallow-water ecosystems such as [coral lagoons](https://bliptext.com/articles/coral-lagoons), [estuaries](https://bliptext.com/articles/estuaries), [marsh flats](https://bliptext.com/articles/marsh-flats), [tidal creeks](https://bliptext.com/articles/tidal-creeks), and [tide pools](https://bliptext.com/articles/tide-pools).\n\n## Diet\nMilkfish are omnivorous opportunistic feeders.\nJuvenile milkfish eat a variety of foods including [phytoplankton](https://bliptext.com/articles/phytoplankton), [zooplankton](https://bliptext.com/articles/zooplankton), filamentous [green algae](https://bliptext.com/articles/green-algae), and small [invertebrates](https://bliptext.com/articles/invertebrates).\nSimilarly to juveniles, adults also eat benthic invertebrates and additionally planktonic and [nektonic](https://bliptext.com/articles/nektonic) items such as [clupeid](https://bliptext.com/articles/clupeid) juveniles.\n\n## Habitat\nAdults tend to [school](https://bliptext.com/articles/shoaling-and-schooling) around [coasts](https://bliptext.com/articles/coast) and [islands](https://bliptext.com/articles/island) with [coral reefs](https://bliptext.com/articles/coral-reef).\nThe young [fry](https://bliptext.com/articles/spawn-biology) live at sea for two to three weeks and then migrate during the juvenile stage to [mangrove](https://bliptext.com/articles/mangrove) swamps, [estuaries](https://bliptext.com/articles/estuary), and sometimes [lakes](https://bliptext.com/articles/lake), and return to sea to mature sexually and reproduce.\nJuveniles prefer to settle in undisturbed coastal ecosystems that are semi-enclosed, calm, shallow, free from predators, and rich in aquatic vegetation.\nIn their natural habitats, milkfish are very adaptable to both changes in environmental conditions and diet.\nMilkfish are good [osmoregulators](https://bliptext.com/articles/osmoregulation) and extremely [euryhaline](https://bliptext.com/articles/euryhaline).\nThe wide geographic distribution of milkfish has led to genetic variation in the species across the Indo-Pacific.\nMilkfish populations differ between the Hawaiian islands, the central Pacific islands, Tonga, Tahiti, Philippines-Taiwan-Indonesia, Thailand-Malaysia, India, and Africa.\nHowever, all populations are thought to be inter-breeding, thus they are all considered one species, and their genetic diversity is low.\nHowever, populations may still differ in their reproductive, migratory, and survival methods.\n\n# Conservation Status\nMilkfish are not currently a threatened species.\nAlthough milkfish populations are not threatened with extinction, they are at risk of ingesting or absorbing pollutants.\nMilkfish frequent environments that have been affected by [industrial pollutants](https://bliptext.com/articles/industrial-pollution), [land runoff](https://bliptext.com/articles/land-runoff), and plastics.\nAsia is one of the largest contributors of plastic litter into both the ocean and freshwater systems.\nA population of milkfish from San Jose, [North Samar](https://bliptext.com/articles/north-samar), Philippines was found to have concentrations of lead in the meaty part of their bodies.\nPollutants have also impacted the aquaculture industry.\nIn an aquaculture system in [Butuan](https://bliptext.com/articles/butuan), Philippines, 97% of the fish sampled had [microplastics](https://bliptext.com/articles/microplastics) in their gastrointestinal tracts.\nA similar study in Indonesia showed similar results.\nThe presence of pollutants in milkfish poses a threat to the species’ health, aquaculture, and humans.\n\n# Fishing\nIn the Philippines, it is prohibited to fish for adult milkfish, also known as sabalo, over 60cm.\nThe government enacted this law in 1975 in an effort to protect spawning stocks of fish.\nHowever, sabalo are incidentally caught in [fish corrals](https://bliptext.com/articles/fish-corral) and are products of [bycatch](https://bliptext.com/articles/bycatch) from fisheries.\nThe ban was reinforced by the Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 and violations are punishable by imprisonment for 6 months to 8 yr, and/or a fine of P80,000, forfeiture of the catch and fishing equipment used, and revocation of the fishing license.\n\n# Consumption\nThe milkfish is an important seafood in [Southeast Asia](https://bliptext.com/articles/southeast-asia) and some Pacific Islands.\nBecause it is notorious for being much bonier than other food fish, deboned milkfish, called \"boneless bangús\" in the Philippines, has become popular in stores and markets.\nDespite the notoriety however, many people in the Philippines continue to enjoy the fish cooked regularly or even raw using [kalamansi](https://bliptext.com/articles/calamondin) juice or vinegar to make [kinilaw na bangus](https://bliptext.com/articles/kinilaw).\nPopular presentations of milkfish in Indonesia include bandeng duri lunak (soft-boned milkfish, ikan bandeng is Indonesian for milkfish) from Central and East Java or [bandeng presto](https://bliptext.com/articles/id-bandeng-presto), which is pressure cooked milkfish until the thorns are rendered tender, and bandeng asap or [smoked](https://bliptext.com/articles/smoked-fish) milkfish.\nEither fresh or processed, milkfish is the popular seafood product of Indonesian fishing towns, such as Juwana near [Semarang](https://bliptext.com/articles/semarang) in Central Java, and [Sidoarjo](https://bliptext.com/articles/sidoarjo) near [Surabaya](https://bliptext.com/articles/surabaya) in East Java.\nMilkfish is the most popular fish in [Taiwanese cuisine](https://bliptext.com/articles/taiwanese-cuisine); it is valued for its versatility as well as its tender meat and economical price.\nPopular presentations include as a topping for [congee](https://bliptext.com/articles/milkfish-congee), pan fried, braised, and as fish balls.\nThere is a milkfish museum in [Anping District](https://bliptext.com/articles/anping-district) and city of [Kaohsiung](https://bliptext.com/articles/kaohsiung) holds an annual milkfish festival.\nMilkfish is an [oily fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/oily-fish), and is rich in [omega-3 fatty acids](https://bliptext.com/articles/omega-3-fatty-acids).\n# [Smoked milkfish, sold in Juanda International Airport, Surabaya. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Bandeng///Asap%2C///Indonesian///Smoked///Milkfish.JPG]\n# [Fried milkfish belly fillet served at restaurant in Taipei, Taiwan. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Food///%E4%B9%BE%E7%85%8E%E8%99%B1%E7%9B%AE%E9%AD%9A%2C///%E9%98%BF%E8%8B%B1%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E6%96%99%E7%90%86%2C///%E9%98%BF%E8%8B%B1%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E5%B0%8F%E5%90%83%2C///%E5%8F%B0%E5%8C%97///%2818403495293%29.jpg]\n\n# Aquaculture\n\n## History\nMilkfish [aquaculture](https://bliptext.com/articles/aquaculture) first occurred around 1800 years ago in the Philippines and spread to Indonesia, Taiwan, and into the Pacific.\nTraditional milkfish aquaculture relied upon restocking [ponds](https://bliptext.com/articles/pond) by collecting wild fry.\nThis led to a wide range of variability in quality and quantity between seasons and regions.\nIn the late 1970s, farmers first successfully spawned breeding fish.\nHowever, they were hard to obtain and produced unreliable egg viability.\nIn 1980, the first spontaneous spawning happened in sea cages.\nThese eggs were found to be sufficient to generate a constant supply for farms.\nMilkfish aquaculture accounts for 14% of all aquaculture production worldwide.\nIndonesia and the Philippines were the leading producers of the species in 2017.\nThe fish is especially desirable for aquaculture because of their rapid growth rate, disease resistance, acclimation to captivity, low mortality, high market value, and high-quality flesh.\n# [A grilled bangus (milkfish) in the Philippines. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Bangus22jf.JPG]\n\n## Farming methods\nFry are raised in either sea cages, large [saline](https://bliptext.com/articles/saline-water) ponds (Philippines), or concrete tanks (Indonesia, Taiwan).\nMilkfish reach sexual maturity at 1.5 kg, which takes five years in floating sea cages, but eight to 10 years in ponds and tanks.\nOnce they reach 6 kg, (eight years), 3–4 million [eggs](https://bliptext.com/articles/egg-biology) are produced each breeding cycle.\nThis is mainly done using natural environmental cues.\nHowever, attempts have been made using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (GnRH-A) to induce spawning.\nSome still use the traditional wild stock method — capturing wild fry using nets.\nMilkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example, [rotifers](https://bliptext.com/articles/rotifer), [green algae](https://bliptext.com/articles/green-algae), and [brine shrimp](https://bliptext.com/articles/brine-shrimp), as well as the target species.\nThey can either be intensive or semi-intensive.\nSemi-intensive methods are more profitable at US$6.67 per thousand fry in 1998, compared with $27.40 for intensive methods.\nHowever, the experience required by labour for semi-intensive hatcheries is higher than intensive.\nMilkfish nurseries in Taiwan are highly commercial and have densities of about 2000/L.\nIndonesia achieves similar densities, but has more backyard-type nurseries.\nThe Philippines has integrated nurseries with grow-out facilities and densities of about 1000/L.\nThe three methods of outgrowing are pond culture, pen culture, and cage culture.\nMost food is natural (known as lab-lab) or a combination of [phytoplankton](https://bliptext.com/articles/phytoplankton) and [macroalgae](https://bliptext.com/articles/macroalgae).\nTraditionally, this was made on site; food is now made commercially to order.\nHarvest occurs when the individuals are 20–40 cm long (250–500 g in weight).\nPartial harvests remove uniformly sized individuals with [seine nets](https://bliptext.com/articles/seine-net) or [gill nets](https://bliptext.com/articles/gill-net).\nTotal harvest removes all individuals and leads to a variety of sizes.\nForced harvest happens when an environmental problem occurs, such as depleted oxygen due to algal blooms, and all stock is removed.\nPossible parasites include [nematodes](https://bliptext.com/articles/nematode), [copepods](https://bliptext.com/articles/copepod), [protozoa](https://bliptext.com/articles/protozoa), and [helminths](https://bliptext.com/articles/helminth).\nMany of these are treatable with chemicals and [antibiotics](https://bliptext.com/articles/antibiotics).\n# [Milkfish aquaculture in fish ponds in Cardona, Rizal, the Philippines. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Cardona%2CRizaljf5184///09.JPG]\n\n## Challenges\nModern milkfish aquaculture faces some challenges: acquiring viable milkfish fry, overcoming their status as a low-value species, attempting to expand outside of an ethnic market and struggling to find a sustainable cost-production balance.\nIn 1987, Taiwan developed the outdoor hatchery technique, which resulted in lower-cost technology, and their fry production surpassed that of the wild.\nSince then, Taiwan has been one of the biggest hatchery fry producers in the Indo-Pacific.\nTo stimulate market demand, sellers have been taking a fast-food approach, to make the product more accessible and desirable to common consumers.\n\n## Processing and marketing\nTraditional post-harvest processing include [smoking](https://bliptext.com/articles/smoked-fish), drying, and fermenting.\nBottling, canning, and freezing are of recent origin.\nDemand has been steadily increasing since 1950.\nIn 2005, 595,000 tonnes were harvested worth US$616 million.\nA trend toward value-added products is occurring.\nIn recent years, the possibility of using milkfish juveniles as bait for [tuna](https://bliptext.com/articles/tuna) long-lining has started to be investigated, opening up new markets for fry hatcheries.\n\n## Golden bangus\nOn April 21, 2012, a Filipino fisherman donated a milkfish with yellowish coloring to the Philippine [Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources](https://bliptext.com/articles/bureau-of-fisheries-and-aquatic-resources), which was later on called the \"golden bangus\".\nHowever, the fish soon died, allegedly because of a lower level of [oxygen](https://bliptext.com/articles/oxygen) in the pond to which it was transferred.\n\n# Cultural Significance\nMilkfish have appeared in the traditions and mythology of the native Pohnpeians, Hawaiians, Tongans, and Nauruans in the Pacific.\n\n## Bangus Festival\nIn the city of [Dagupan](https://bliptext.com/articles/dagupan), Philippines they host an annual Bangus Festival.\nThe festival was initially a bangus harvest or ‘Gilon’ conceptualized in the 1990s by Mayor Al Fernandez.\nNow, the festival has become an extravagant event including street dance competitions.\nThe street dance competition named Gilon-gilon ed Dalan was established to celebrate the bangus harvest.\nThe festival also honors the city’s patron Saint John, who was originally a fisherman and figured prominently in biblical stories of bountiful fish harvests.\nThe Dagupan province is considered the country’s top producer of milkfish cultured in marine cages and pens.\nTwo ‘species’ of milkfish are cultured in the city—the more popular of the two is the Bonuan Bangus.\n# [Street dancers depicting the bountiful harvest of bangus | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Bangus///Festival///of///Dagupan///City.jpg]","current_revision":null,"created_by":"kACnuQmH5k9Nr5VNVEpVeg7XpvUmMctD","created_at":"2025-01-25T18:48:26.067Z","updated_at":"2025-01-25T18:48:26.067Z","search_vector":"'milkfish':1","search_content":" \n \n**Name:** Milkfish \n**Fossil Range:** [Early Eocene](https://bliptext.com/articles/early-eocene)–present \n**Status:** LC \n**Status System:** IUCN3.1 \n**Image Caption:** [French Polynesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/french-polynesia) \n**Image 2:** Milkfish (Chanos chanos) locally called 'bangus' in a Philippine market.jpg \n**Image 2 Caption:** Milkfish (locally bangús) in a [Philippine](https://bliptext.com/articles/philippine) [fish market](https://bliptext.com/articles/fish-market) \n**Genus:** Chanos \n**Parent Authority:** [Lacépède](https://bliptext.com/articles/bernard-germain-tienne-de-la-ville-comte-de-lac-p-de), 1803 \n**Display Parents:** 2 \n**Species:** chanos \n**Authority:** ([Forsskål](https://bliptext.com/articles/peter-forssk-l), 1775) \n**Synonyms:** Butirinus argenteus [Jerdon](https://bliptext.com/articles/thomas-c-jerdon), 1849 · Butirinus maderaspatensis [Jerdon](https://bliptext.com/articles/thomas-c-jerdon), 1849 · Chanos arabicus [Lacepède](https://bliptext.com/articles/bernard-germain-de-lac-p-de), 1803 · Chanos chloropterus [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos cyprinella [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos gardineri [Regan](https://bliptext.com/articles/charles-tate-regan), 1902 · Chanos indicus ([van Hasselt](https://bliptext.com/articles/johan-coenraad-van-hasselt), 1823) · Chanos lubina [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos mento [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos mossambicus ([Peters](https://bliptext.com/articles/wilhelm-peters), 1852) · Chanos nuchalis [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos orientalis [Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847 · Chanos salmoneus ([Forster](https://bliptext.com/articles/johann-reinhold-forster), 1801) · Chanos salmonoides Günther, 1879 · Cyprinus pala [Cuvier](https://bliptext.com/articles/georges-cuvier), 1829 · Cyprinus palah ([Cuvier](https://bliptext.com/articles/georges-cuvier), 1829) · Cyprinus tolo [Cuvier](https://bliptext.com/articles/georges-cuvier), 1829 · Leuciscus palah [Cuvier](https://bliptext.com/articles/georges-cuvier), 1829 · Leuciscus salmoneus ([Forster](https://bliptext.com/articles/johann-reinhold-forster), 1801) · Leuciscus zeylonicus [Bennett](https://bliptext.com/articles/edward-turner-bennett), 1833 · Lutodeira chanos ([Forsskål](https://bliptext.com/articles/peter-forssk-l), 1775) · Lutodeira chloropterus ([Valenciennes](https://bliptext.com/articles/achille-valenciennes), 1847) · Lutodeira indica [van Hasselt](https://bliptext.com/articles/johan-coenraad-van-hasselt), 1823 · Lutodeira mossambica [Peters](https://bliptext.com/articles/wilhelm-peters), 1852 · Lutodeira mossambicus [Peters](https://bliptext.com/articles/wilhelm-peters), 1852 · Lutodeira salmonea ([Forster](https://bliptext.com/articles/johann-reinhold-forster), 1801) · Mugil chanos [Forsskål](https://bliptext.com/articles/peter-forssk-l), 1775 · Mugil salmoneus [Forster](https://bliptext.com/articles/johann-reinhold-forster), 1801 \n \n\n# \nThe **milkfish** (**Chanos chanos**) is a widespread species of [ray-finned fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/actinopterygii) found throughout the [Indo-Pacific](https://bliptext.com/articles/indo-pacific).\nIt is the sole living [species](https://bliptext.com/articles/species) in the [family](https://bliptext.com/articles/family-biology) [Chanidae](https://bliptext.com/articles/chanidae), and the only living member of the genus **Chanos**.\nThe repeating scientific name ([tautonym](https://bliptext.com/articles/tautonym)) is from Greek ( ‘mouth’).\nThey are grouped in the order **Gonorhynchiformes** and are most closely related to the [Ostariophysi](https://bliptext.com/articles/ostariophysi)—freshwater fishes such as carps, catfish, and loaches.\nThe species has many common names.\nThe [Hawaiian](https://bliptext.com/articles/hawaiian-language) name for the fish is awa, and in [Tahitian](https://bliptext.com/articles/tahitian-language) it is ava.\nIt is called bangús in the [Philippines](https://bliptext.com/articles/philippines), where it is popularly known as the [national fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/national-animal), although the [National Commission for Culture and the Arts](https://bliptext.com/articles/national-commission-for-culture-and-the-arts) has stated that this is not the case as it has no basis in Philippine law.\nIn the [Nauruan language](https://bliptext.com/articles/nauruan-language), it is referred to as.\nMilkfish is also called bandeng or bolu in [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia).\nThe following are common names for milkfish by country:\n \n Philippines: bangus, bangrus, banglus, banglot, banglis, sabalo, awa \n Indonesia: ikan bandeng, baulo, bolu, balanak sembawa \n Burma: ga-tin \n Malaysia: bandang, jangos, pisong-pisong \n Sri Lanka: plai-meen, vaikka \n Thailand: pla nua chan \n S. India: pal-meen \n S. Vietnam: ca mang \n Iraq binni: al-bahr \n Taiwan: sabahee \n Hawaii: awa-awa \n Japan: sabahee \n Mexico: sabalo \n \n\n# Geographic Distribution\nChanos chanos occurs in the [Indian Ocean](https://bliptext.com/articles/indian-ocean) and across the [Pacific Ocean](https://bliptext.com/articles/pacific-ocean), from South Africa to Hawaii and the Marquesas, from California to the Galapagos, north to Japan, south to Australia.\nA single specimen was reported in 2012 in the eastern Mediterranean Sea.\nIn 1877, the [California Fish and Game Commission](https://bliptext.com/articles/california-fish-and-game-commission) introduced one hundred milkfish from Hawaii to the inland waters of [Solano County, California](https://bliptext.com/articles/solano-county-california).\nThe introduced population could not establish itself permanently and it’s currently unknown how their presence affected the native ecosystem.\nMilkfishes commonly live in tropical offshore marine waters around islands and along continental shelves, at depths of 1 to 30 m. They also frequently enter estuaries and rivers.\n# [Estimated geographical range of Chanos in the Indo-Pacific | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Indo-Pacific///map///outlines///with///ASEAN///overlay.jpg]\n\n# Taxonomy\nChanos is the only surviving genus of the ancient family [Chanidae](https://bliptext.com/articles/chanidae), which has existed since the [Early Cretaceous](https://bliptext.com/articles/early-cretaceous).\nThe only surviving species is the widespread C. chanos.\nSeveral fossil species of Chanos are known from the [Paleogene](https://bliptext.com/articles/paleogene) of the [Tethys](https://bliptext.com/articles/tethys-ocean) and [North Seas](https://bliptext.com/articles/north-sea), dating as far back as the earliest [Eocene](https://bliptext.com/articles/eocene).\nThe earliest fossil Chanos were found in freshwater Eocene deposits in Europe and North America—hinting that the species first appeared in freshwater environments 40–50 million years ago.\nIt’s possible that their invasion into the ocean happened during high sea-level or flooding events after the Eocene.\nGlobal cooling during the Mid-Eocene likely wiped out the population of milkfish in the Atlantic, but the species persisted in the Indo-Pacific.\nThe following fossil species of Chanos are known:\nThe extinct [Caeus leopoldi](https://bliptext.com/articles/caeus) from the [Early Cretaceous](https://bliptext.com/articles/early-cretaceous) ([Albian](https://bliptext.com/articles/albian)) of Italy is also sometimes placed in Chanos as Chanos leopoldi, which would be the earliest record of the genus and extend its occurrence even further back.\nHowever, more recent studies have affirmed it being a distinct genus.\n\n# Anatomy\nThe milkfish can grow to 1.80 m, but are most often no more than 1 m in length.\nThey can reach a weight of about 14 kg. and an age of 15 years.\nThey have an elongated and almost compressed body, with a generally symmetrical and streamlined appearance, one dorsal fin, falcate pectoral fins and a sizable forked [caudal fin](https://bliptext.com/articles/caudal-fin).\nThe head is small relative to the body.\nThe mouth is small and toothless.\nThe body is olive green, with silvery flanks and dark bordered fins.\nThey have 13–17 dorsal soft rays, 8–10 anal soft rays and 31 caudal fin rays.\nThere are numerous fine intramuscular bones, which may complicate human consumption of the fish (see \"Consumption\" below).\nTheir silvery complexion is similar to many other fish species of the Indo-Pacific.\nThey are often mistaken for species of Clupeidae, Megalops cyprinoides, Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus, and Elops machnata.\nChanos can be distinguished from these species by their size, absence of scutes, tubercle on the lower jaw, fin placement, no gular plate between arms of the lower jaw, and having only four branchiostegal rays.\nVariant milkfish body types have occasionally been found.\nThe ‘goldfish-type’ milkfish was discovered in the Philippines and is characterized by distinctly elongated dorsal, pelvic, and anal fins, and a caudal fin as long as the body.\nIn Hawaii, Indonesia, and Australia, dwarf or hunchback ‘shad-type’ specimens have been recorded.\nThey have a standard length-to-depth ratio of 2.0-2.5 instead of the usual 3.5-4.0.\nIn Northern Australia, a milkfish with a red head, red fins, and blue dorsal coloration was reported.\n# [Chanos chanos | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Chanos///chanos///Hakone.jpg]\n\n# Life History\nReproduction of milkfish in nature is far less understood than populations of milkfish bred and propagated in captivity (see \"Aquaculture\" below).\nIn the wild, milkfish take 3–5 years to mature.\nFemales can produce 0.5-6 million eggs and have the ability to spawn more than once a year.\nSpawning takes place at night, may be lunar periodic, and is strongly seasonal.\nMilkfish eggs are [pelagic](https://bliptext.com/articles/pelagic) and range between 1.1–1.25 mm in diameter.\nSpawning sites are clear, warm, shallow waters above sand or coral reefs.\nIt is believed milkfish prefer these locations to minimize predation from benthic [planktivores](https://bliptext.com/articles/planktivores).\nMilkfish larvae have a pelagic planktonic stage.\nYounger larvae occur mostly at the surface, or sometimes deeper (20–30m).\nOlder larvae are only found at the surface and in near-shore environments.\nLarvae metamorphose into fry and become benthic-feeding juveniles that are opportunistically [herbivorous](https://bliptext.com/articles/herbivorous), [detritivorous](https://bliptext.com/articles/detritivorous), or [omnivorous](https://bliptext.com/articles/omnivorous), depending on the predominant food types in the habitat.\nJuvenile milkfish larger than 20mm typically bear the characteristics of adults.\nThey have complete fin rays, a forked caudal fin, scales, and silvery coloration.\nJuveniles have been found to inhabit a diverse range of shallow-water ecosystems such as [coral lagoons](https://bliptext.com/articles/coral-lagoons), [estuaries](https://bliptext.com/articles/estuaries), [marsh flats](https://bliptext.com/articles/marsh-flats), [tidal creeks](https://bliptext.com/articles/tidal-creeks), and [tide pools](https://bliptext.com/articles/tide-pools).\n\n## Diet\nMilkfish are omnivorous opportunistic feeders.\nJuvenile milkfish eat a variety of foods including [phytoplankton](https://bliptext.com/articles/phytoplankton), [zooplankton](https://bliptext.com/articles/zooplankton), filamentous [green algae](https://bliptext.com/articles/green-algae), and small [invertebrates](https://bliptext.com/articles/invertebrates).\nSimilarly to juveniles, adults also eat benthic invertebrates and additionally planktonic and [nektonic](https://bliptext.com/articles/nektonic) items such as [clupeid](https://bliptext.com/articles/clupeid) juveniles.\n\n## Habitat\nAdults tend to [school](https://bliptext.com/articles/shoaling-and-schooling) around [coasts](https://bliptext.com/articles/coast) and [islands](https://bliptext.com/articles/island) with [coral reefs](https://bliptext.com/articles/coral-reef).\nThe young [fry](https://bliptext.com/articles/spawn-biology) live at sea for two to three weeks and then migrate during the juvenile stage to [mangrove](https://bliptext.com/articles/mangrove) swamps, [estuaries](https://bliptext.com/articles/estuary), and sometimes [lakes](https://bliptext.com/articles/lake), and return to sea to mature sexually and reproduce.\nJuveniles prefer to settle in undisturbed coastal ecosystems that are semi-enclosed, calm, shallow, free from predators, and rich in aquatic vegetation.\nIn their natural habitats, milkfish are very adaptable to both changes in environmental conditions and diet.\nMilkfish are good [osmoregulators](https://bliptext.com/articles/osmoregulation) and extremely [euryhaline](https://bliptext.com/articles/euryhaline).\nThe wide geographic distribution of milkfish has led to genetic variation in the species across the Indo-Pacific.\nMilkfish populations differ between the Hawaiian islands, the central Pacific islands, Tonga, Tahiti, Philippines-Taiwan-Indonesia, Thailand-Malaysia, India, and Africa.\nHowever, all populations are thought to be inter-breeding, thus they are all considered one species, and their genetic diversity is low.\nHowever, populations may still differ in their reproductive, migratory, and survival methods.\n\n# Conservation Status\nMilkfish are not currently a threatened species.\nAlthough milkfish populations are not threatened with extinction, they are at risk of ingesting or absorbing pollutants.\nMilkfish frequent environments that have been affected by [industrial pollutants](https://bliptext.com/articles/industrial-pollution), [land runoff](https://bliptext.com/articles/land-runoff), and plastics.\nAsia is one of the largest contributors of plastic litter into both the ocean and freshwater systems.\nA population of milkfish from San Jose, [North Samar](https://bliptext.com/articles/north-samar), Philippines was found to have concentrations of lead in the meaty part of their bodies.\nPollutants have also impacted the aquaculture industry.\nIn an aquaculture system in [Butuan](https://bliptext.com/articles/butuan), Philippines, 97% of the fish sampled had [microplastics](https://bliptext.com/articles/microplastics) in their gastrointestinal tracts.\nA similar study in Indonesia showed similar results.\nThe presence of pollutants in milkfish poses a threat to the species’ health, aquaculture, and humans.\n\n# Fishing\nIn the Philippines, it is prohibited to fish for adult milkfish, also known as sabalo, over 60cm.\nThe government enacted this law in 1975 in an effort to protect spawning stocks of fish.\nHowever, sabalo are incidentally caught in [fish corrals](https://bliptext.com/articles/fish-corral) and are products of [bycatch](https://bliptext.com/articles/bycatch) from fisheries.\nThe ban was reinforced by the Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 and violations are punishable by imprisonment for 6 months to 8 yr, and/or a fine of P80,000, forfeiture of the catch and fishing equipment used, and revocation of the fishing license.\n\n# Consumption\nThe milkfish is an important seafood in [Southeast Asia](https://bliptext.com/articles/southeast-asia) and some Pacific Islands.\nBecause it is notorious for being much bonier than other food fish, deboned milkfish, called \"boneless bangús\" in the Philippines, has become popular in stores and markets.\nDespite the notoriety however, many people in the Philippines continue to enjoy the fish cooked regularly or even raw using [kalamansi](https://bliptext.com/articles/calamondin) juice or vinegar to make [kinilaw na bangus](https://bliptext.com/articles/kinilaw).\nPopular presentations of milkfish in Indonesia include bandeng duri lunak (soft-boned milkfish, ikan bandeng is Indonesian for milkfish) from Central and East Java or [bandeng presto](https://bliptext.com/articles/id-bandeng-presto), which is pressure cooked milkfish until the thorns are rendered tender, and bandeng asap or [smoked](https://bliptext.com/articles/smoked-fish) milkfish.\nEither fresh or processed, milkfish is the popular seafood product of Indonesian fishing towns, such as Juwana near [Semarang](https://bliptext.com/articles/semarang) in Central Java, and [Sidoarjo](https://bliptext.com/articles/sidoarjo) near [Surabaya](https://bliptext.com/articles/surabaya) in East Java.\nMilkfish is the most popular fish in [Taiwanese cuisine](https://bliptext.com/articles/taiwanese-cuisine); it is valued for its versatility as well as its tender meat and economical price.\nPopular presentations include as a topping for [congee](https://bliptext.com/articles/milkfish-congee), pan fried, braised, and as fish balls.\nThere is a milkfish museum in [Anping District](https://bliptext.com/articles/anping-district) and city of [Kaohsiung](https://bliptext.com/articles/kaohsiung) holds an annual milkfish festival.\nMilkfish is an [oily fish](https://bliptext.com/articles/oily-fish), and is rich in [omega-3 fatty acids](https://bliptext.com/articles/omega-3-fatty-acids).\n# [Smoked milkfish, sold in Juanda International Airport, Surabaya. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Bandeng///Asap%2C///Indonesian///Smoked///Milkfish.JPG]\n# [Fried milkfish belly fillet served at restaurant in Taipei, Taiwan. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Food///%E4%B9%BE%E7%85%8E%E8%99%B1%E7%9B%AE%E9%AD%9A%2C///%E9%98%BF%E8%8B%B1%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E6%96%99%E7%90%86%2C///%E9%98%BF%E8%8B%B1%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E 5%B0%8F%E5%90%83%2C///%E5%8F%B0%E5%8C%97///%2818403495293%29.jpg]\n\n# Aquaculture\n\n## History\nMilkfish [aquaculture](https://bliptext.com/articles/aquaculture) first occurred around 1800 years ago in the Philippines and spread to Indonesia, Taiwan, and into the Pacific.\nTraditional milkfish aquaculture relied upon restocking [ponds](https://bliptext.com/articles/pond) by collecting wild fry.\nThis led to a wide range of variability in quality and quantity between seasons and regions.\nIn the late 1970s, farmers first successfully spawned breeding fish.\nHowever, they were hard to obtain and produced unreliable egg viability.\nIn 1980, the first spontaneous spawning happened in sea cages.\nThese eggs were found to be sufficient to generate a constant supply for farms.\nMilkfish aquaculture accounts for 14% of all aquaculture production worldwide.\nIndonesia and the Philippines were the leading producers of the species in 2017.\nThe fish is especially desirable for aquaculture because of their rapid growth rate, disease resistance, acclimation to captivity, low mortality, high market value, and high-quality flesh.\n# [A grilled bangus (milkfish) in the Philippines. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Bangus22jf.JPG]\n\n## Farming methods\nFry are raised in either sea cages, large [saline](https://bliptext.com/articles/saline-water) ponds (Philippines), or concrete tanks (Indonesia, Taiwan).\nMilkfish reach sexual maturity at 1.5 kg, which takes five years in floating sea cages, but eight to 10 years in ponds and tanks.\nOnce they reach 6 kg, (eight years), 3–4 million [eggs](https://bliptext.com/articles/egg-biology) are produced each breeding cycle.\nThis is mainly done using natural environmental cues.\nHowever, attempts have been made using gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue (GnRH-A) to induce spawning.\nSome still use the traditional wild stock method — capturing wild fry using nets.\nMilkfish hatcheries, like most hatcheries, contain a variety of cultures, for example, [rotifers](https://bliptext.com/articles/rotifer), [green algae](https://bliptext.com/articles/green-algae), and [brine shrimp](https://bliptext.com/articles/brine-shrimp), as well as the target species.\nThey can either be intensive or semi-intensive.\nSemi-intensive methods are more profitable at US$6.67 per thousand fry in 1998, compared with $27.40 for intensive methods.\nHowever, the experience required by labour for semi-intensive hatcheries is higher than intensive.\nMilkfish nurseries in Taiwan are highly commercial and have densities of about 2000/L.\nIndonesia achieves similar densities, but has more backyard-type nurseries.\nThe Philippines has integrated nurseries with grow-out facilities and densities of about 1000/L.\nThe three methods of outgrowing are pond culture, pen culture, and cage culture.\nMost food is natural (known as lab-lab) or a combination of [phytoplankton](https://bliptext.com/articles/phytoplankton) and [macroalgae](https://bliptext.com/articles/macroalgae).\nTraditionally, this was made on site; food is now made commercially to order.\nHarvest occurs when the individuals are 20–40 cm long (250–500 g in weight).\nPartial harvests remove uniformly sized individuals with [seine nets](https://bliptext.com/articles/seine-net) or [gill nets](https://bliptext.com/articles/gill-net).\nTotal harvest removes all individuals and leads to a variety of sizes.\nForced harvest happens when an environmental problem occurs, such as depleted oxygen due to algal blooms, and all stock is removed.\nPossible parasites include [nematodes](https://bliptext.com/articles/nematode), [copepods](https://bliptext.com/articles/copepod), [protozoa](https://bliptext.com/articles/protozoa), and [helminths](https://bliptext.com/articles/helminth).\nMany of these are treatable with chemicals and [antibiotics](https://bliptext.com/articles/antibiotics).\n# [Milkfish aquaculture in fish ponds in Cardona, Rizal, the Philippines. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Cardona%2CRizaljf5184///09.JPG]\n\n## Challenges\nModern milkfish aquaculture faces some challenges: acquiring viable milkfish fry, overcoming their status as a low-value species, attempting to expand outside of an ethnic market and struggling to find a sustainable cost-production balance.\nIn 1987, Taiwan developed the outdoor hatchery technique, which resulted in lower-cost technology, and their fry production surpassed that of the wild.\nSince then, Taiwan has been one of the biggest hatchery fry producers in the Indo-Pacific.\nTo stimulate market demand, sellers have been taking a fast-food approach, to make the product more accessible and desirable to common consumers.\n\n## Processing and marketing\nTraditional post-harvest processing include [smoking](https://bliptext.com/articles/smoked-fish), drying, and fermenting.\nBottling, canning, and freezing are of recent origin.\nDemand has been steadily increasing since 1950.\nIn 2005, 595,000 tonnes were harvested worth US$616 million.\nA trend toward value-added products is occurring.\nIn recent years, the possibility of using milkfish juveniles as bait for [tuna](https://bliptext.com/articles/tuna) long-lining has started to be investigated, opening up new markets for fry hatcheries.\n\n## Golden bangus\nOn April 21, 2012, a Filipino fisherman donated a milkfish with yellowish coloring to the Philippine [Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources](https://bliptext.com/articles/bureau-of-fisheries-and-aquatic-resources), which was later on called the \"golden bangus\".\nHowever, the fish soon died, allegedly because of a lower level of [oxygen](https://bliptext.com/articles/oxygen) in the pond to which it was transferred.\n\n# Cultural Significance\nMilkfish have appeared in the traditions and mythology of the native Pohnpeians, Hawaiians, Tongans, and Nauruans in the Pacific.\n\n## Bangus Festival\nIn the city of [Dagupan](https://bliptext.com/articles/dagupan), Philippines they host an annual Bangus Festival.\nThe festival was initially a bangus harvest or ‘Gilon’ conceptualized in the 1990s by Mayor Al Fernandez.\nNow, the festival has become an extravagant event including street dance competitions.\nThe street dance competition named Gilon-gilon ed Dalan was established to celebrate the bangus harvest.\nThe festival also honors the city’s patron Saint John, who was originally a fisherman and figured prominently in biblical stories of bountiful fish harvests.\nThe Dagupan province is considered the country’s top producer of milkfish cultured in marine cages and pens.\nTwo ‘species’ of milkfish are cultured in the city—the more popular of the two is the Bonuan Bangus.\n# [Street dancers depicting the bountiful harvest of bangus | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Bangus///Festival///of///Dagupan///City.jpg]","revisionCount":0},"hasMore":false,"nextCursor":null}