List of Chinese monarchs

The Chinese monarchs were the rulers of China during Ancient and Imperial periods. The earliest rulers in traditional Chinese historiography are of mythological origin, and followed by the Xia dynasty of highly uncertain and contested historicity. During the subsequent Shang (c. 1600–1046 BCE) and Zhou (1046–256 BCE) dynasties, rulers were referred to as Wang 王, meaning king. China was fully united for the first time by Qin Shi Huang ((r. undefined – undefined)259–210 BCE), who established the first Imperial dynasty, adopting the title Huangdi (皇帝), meaning Emperor, which remained in use until the Imperial system's fall in 1912. At no point during Ancient or Imperial China was there a formalized means to confer legitimate succession between rulers. From the Zhou dynasty onwards, monarchs justified their reigns by claiming the Mandate of Heaven (天命; Tianming). The mandate held that a ruler and their successors had permission from the heavens to rule as long as they did so effectively. It also declared a ruler the Son of Heaven (天子; Tianzi), giving them the right to rule "all under heaven" (天下; Tianxia). Given the Mandate's subjective nature, rulers also utilized a variety of methods to retain support and justify their accession. This ranged from military enforcement, political patronage, establishing peace and solidity, institutional reform, and historical revisionism to legitimize the dissolution of previous dynasties and their own succession. For most of Imperial China, the wuxing (五行; "Five Elements") philosophical scheme was also central to justify dynastic succession. Most Chinese monarchs had many names. They were given a personal name (名字; Mingzi) at birth, but later referred to by a posthumous name (謚號; Shihao)—which memorialized their accomplishments or character—due to a cultural naming taboo. Most emperors of the Imperial period also received a temple name (廟號; Miaohao), used to venerate them in ancestor worship. From the rule of Emperor Wu of Han ((r. undefined – undefined)141–87 BCE) onwards, emperors also adopted one or several era names (年號; Nianhao), or "reign mottos", to divide their rule by important events or accomplishments. Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) rulers are referred to solely by their era names, of which they only had one. Apart from ethnic Han rulers, China was also ruled by various non-Han monarchs, including Jurchen, Khitan, Manchu, Mongol and Tangut and many others. To justify their reign, non-Han rulers sometimes aligned themselves with the Confucian sages or the Chakravarti of Chinese Buddhism. There are numerous lengthy periods where many competing kingdoms claimed the throne, many of whose legitimacy is still debated by scholars.

Ancient China

Mythological rulers

In traditional Chinese historiography, various models of mythological founding rulers exist. The relevancy of these figures to the earliest Chinese people is unknown, since most accounts of them were written from the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BCE) onwards. The sinologist Kwang-chih Chang has generalized the typical stages: "the first period was populated by gods, the second by demigods/culture hero, and the third by the legendary kings." The primordial god Pangu is given by many texts as the earliest figure and is credited with forming the world by separating heaven and earth. Other gods include Nüwa, who repaired heaven; Hou Yi, a mythical archer; and Gonggong, a serpent-like water deity. Demigod and hero rulers from hero myths—the largest group Chinese myths—are attributed the invention of specific items, practices or traditions. Among the more important of them are Fuxi, the inventor of hunting; Suiren, who invented fire; and Shennong, who invented both agriculture and medicine. The subsequent legendary kings began with the Yellow Emperor (黃帝), known as Huangdi, a major culture hero of Chinese civilization whose reign was considered exemplary. Succeeding rulers include some combination of Shaohao, Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun. Since the late Warring States onwards, early Chinese monarchs have traditionally been ground into the concept of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors; however, the chosen figures of this grouping varies considerably between sources. Generally, most accounts include at least Fuxi and Shennong among the Three Sovereigns as well as the Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun among the Five Emperors.

Xia dynasty

The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period was followed by the Xia dynasty in traditional historiography. Founded by Yu the Great, both the dynasty and its rulers are of highly uncertain and controversial historicity. {{legend|#EBEBEB|(#) – Uncertain legitimacy}}

Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE)

Unlike the Xia, the Shang dynasty's historicity is firmly established, due to written records on divination objects known as Oracle bones. The oldest such oracle bones date to the Late Shang (c. 1250—1046 BCE), during the reign of Wu Ding (1250–1192), putting the exact details of earlier rulers into doubt. {{legend|#EBEBEB|(#) – Uncertain legitimacy}} {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%;" ! scope="col" rowspan="2" width="15%" | Posthumous name ! scope="col" rowspan="2" width="15%" | Personal name ! scope="col" colspan="2" width="20%" | Tentative reign (BCE) ! rowspan="2" scope="col" width="20%" | Traditional succession ! scope="col" rowspan="2" width="10%" | Residence ! scope="col" rowspan="2" width="20%" | Purported life details ! XSZ Project ! CHAC

Early Shang

Late Shang

! colspan="7" | ! colspan="7" | Kang Ding 康丁 Wen Ding 文丁

Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE)

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%;" ! scope="col" rowspan="2" width="15%" | Posthumous name ! scope="col" rowspan="2" width="15%" | Personal name ! scope="col" colspan="2" width="25%" | Tentative reign (BCE) ! scope="col" rowspan="2" width="20%" | Traditional succession ! scope="col" rowspan="2" width="25%" | Purported life details ! XSZ Project ! CHAC

Western Zhou

Eastern Zhou

Early imperial China

Qin dynasty (221–207 BCE)

Han and Xin dynasties (202 BCE – 220 CE)

{{legend|#EBEBEB|(#) – contested legitimacy}} {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%;" ! scope="col" width="15%" | Posthumous name ! scope="col" width="15%" | Personal name ! scope="col" width="25%" | Reign ! scope="col" width="15%" | Succession ! scope="col" width="30%" | Life details

Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE)

Among the most revered Chinese emperors. Died from an arrow injury in a campaign against Ying Bu His reign was largely dominated by his mother Empress Lü. Died from an unknown illness ! colspan="5" | An infant emperor whose reign was completely dominated by Empress Lü. Deposed and put under house arrest; unknown date of death after 184 ! colspan="5" | An infant emperor whose reign was completely dominated by Empress Lü. Put to death by the House of Lü ! colspan="5" | Died of natural causes Died of natural causes Among the longest reigning and highly regarded Chinese emperors. Expanded the Han dynasty considerably. Died from an unknown illness Died from natural causes ! colspan="5" | Briefly installed by Huo Guang and not often considered legitimate. Died from natural causes ! colspan="5" | His reign is sometimes considered a cultural and political 'renaissance'. Died from natural causes Died from an unknown illness Died from a stroke or possibly complications from an aphrodisiac overdose Died from an unknown illness His reign was dominated by Wang Zhengjun and Wang Mang. He was murdered, possibly by orders from the latter. ! colspan="5" | A child puppet of Wang Mang; often not considered legitimate. He later attempted to succeed the Gengshi Emperor, but was killed by him ! colspan="5" |

Xin dynasty (9–23 CE)

Established the Xin dynasty, but his drastic reforms incited the Red Eyebrows and Lulin peasant rebellions which collapsed the dynasty.

Gengshi Emperor (23–25 CE)

Strangled on the orders of 謝祿, a leader of the Red Eyebrows. Sometimes considered a pretender and illegitimate

Eastern Han (25–220 CE)

Died of natural causes Died of natural causes His reign marked the beginning of the Han's decline. Died of natural causes Died of natural causes Died of natural causes Died of natural causes ! colspan="5" | Briefly reigned, probably as a child; often not considered legitimate. Died of natural causes ! colspan="5" | Died of natural causes Died of natural causes His reign was dominated by Liang Ji, who may have poisoned him. Otherwise he died from food poisoning Died of natural causes Died of an unknown illness ! colspan="5" | Briefly reigned as a child; often not considered legitimate. Poisoned by Dong Zhuo ! colspan="5" | A puppet of Dong Zhuo and later Cao Cao. Forced to abdicate by Cao Pi, but spared. Died of natural causes

Six Dynasties

Three Kingdoms (220–280)

Cao Wei (220–266)

Shu Han (221–263)

Eastern Wu (222–280)

Jin dynasty (266–420)

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%;" ! scope="col" width="15%" | Posthumous name ! scope="col" width="15%" | Personal name ! scope="col" width="25%" | Reign ! scope="col" width="15%" | Succession ! scope="col" width="30%" | Life details

Western Jin (266–316)

Died of natural causes Possibly mentally unstable, his reign was marked by the disastrous War of the Eight Princes. He was poisoned by Sima Yue His reign, dominated by Sima Yue, saw widespread ethnic rebellions. He was deposed and killed by the Han-Zhao Killed by Liu Cong of Han-Zhao

Eastern Jin (318–420)

Died of natural causes His reign was dominated by Wang Dao and antagonized by Wang Dun. Died of natural causes Dominated by Yu Liang, he was briefly deposed in 328 by rebel Su Jun. Died of natural causes Died of natural causes The youngest Chinese emperor. Died of natural causes Died of drug poisoning Deposed by Huan Wen, later dying of natural causes Died of natural causes His army's defeat of the Former Qin army at the Battle of Fei River led to the eventual collapse of the Former Qin. Killed by a jealous concubine Dominated by Sima Daozi, Huan Xuan and Liu Yu, he was killed by the latter Abdicated in favor of Liu Yu (Emperor Wu of Song), later assassinated

Sixteen Kingdoms (304–439)

Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589)

Northern Dynasties (420–581)

Southern Dynasties (420–589)

Mid-imperial China

Sui dynasty (581–619)

Tang and Zhou dynasties (618–907)

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center; width:100%;" ! scope="col" width="10%" | Portrait ! scope="col" width="15%" | Temple name ! scope="col" width="15%" | Personal name ! scope="col" width="23%" | Reign ! scope="col" width="12%" | Succession ! scope="col" width="25%" | Life details

Early Tang (618–690)

Other names Abdicated in favor of his son following the Xuanwu Gate Incident. A fair and capable ruler, his reign is said to have started a golden age in Chinese history, although imperial propaganda often underestimated his reign to exalt that of his son Other names Considered one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history, both as a conqueror and administrator. His reign saw a territorial expansion and economic growth not seen since the Han dynasty. Died after a period of prolonged illness, possibly due to alchemical elixir poisoning Other names A well-meaning but ineffectual ruler, his reign was dominated by several successive regencies. Suffered a serious stroke in late 660, whereafter the government was run by his wife, the future Empress Wu Zetian. Died after several years of illness Other names Deposed by his mother after challenging her authority Other names A complete puppet of his mother; forced to abdicate

Wu Zhou (690–705)

Other names Only female sovereign in Chinese history. Notable for her contribution to the Imperial examination system and her support for Buddhism, but also for her violent methods of enforcement. Deposed by Zhang Jianzhi; died of natural causes

Tang restoration (705–907)

A weak ruler; he died after eating a poisoned cake delivered by his wife, Empress Wei Second shortest-reigning emperor; deposed in a palace coup Spent his reign in a constant power struggle with his sister, Princess Taiping. Abdicated in favor of his son to undermine her influence Other names One of the greatest and longest reigning Chinese emperors. The Tang empire reached its peak during his early reign, but fell of grace at the end as a result of the disastrous An Lushan Rebellion. Abdicated in favor of his son Other names Recaptured Chang'an in November 757. During his reign the eunuchs grew increasingly powerful. Other names Ended the An–Shi Rebellion, but failed to maintain control over the far provinces Other names Notable for his tax reforms, he also attempted to control regional jiedushi, but this backfired and caused a military mutiny in 783 Other names Aphasic, weak and ill, he was urged to abdicate by the court eunuchs Other names Ended the warlord threat, but ended up becoming a puppet of the eunuchs. A drug addict, he was poisoned to death by eunuch Chen Hongzhi Other names Suffered a serious stroke in 822 (while playing polo), whereafter the government was run by eunuchs Wang Shoucheng and Li Fengji. Other names A reckless player of football; he was killed by eunuchs Other names Attempted to eradicate the eunuchs in the Sweet Dew incident (835), but ended up making them stronger. Died of natural causes Other names Notable for his persecution of Buddhism. Died of drug overdose Other names Arguably the last capable Tang emperor. Notable for his campaigns against the Tibetan Empire. Died of drug overdose Other names A devout Buddhist, but also a cruel and unstable ruler. His reign, which was dominated by eunuchs, saw various revolts that severely weakened imperial power Other names A puppet of Tian Lingzi, had to flee Chang'an twice due to internal strife Killed by Xizong's forces; often seen as an usurper Other names His reign saw the final collapse of imperial authority and the rise of new powerful warlords. He was killed by rebel Zhu Wen Other names Installed, deposed, and later killed by Zhu Wen

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Five Dynasties (907–912)

Ten Kingdoms (907–979)

Late imperial China

Song dynasty (960–1279)

Northern Song (960–1127)

Other names Significantly reduced the power of the military in favor of civilian officers. Died in uncertain circumstances, probably illness Other names Conquered the last remaining Chinese state in 978, but failed the reconquer former Tang territories, like Vietnam. Died of natural causes Other names Suffered significant defeats to the northern Liao dynasty, leading to the Chanyuan Treaty. Died after a prolonged period of illness Other names Ruled under the regency of Empress Liu until 1033. His long reign, the longest of the Song dynasty, saw several developments in culture, philosophy and arts Other names Ruled initially under the regency of Empress Dowager Cao. Died after several years of illness Other names Best known by the implementation of the "New Policies". Died of illness Other names Ruled under the regency of Empress Dowager Gao until 1093. Died of illness Other names A remarkable patron of the arts and an artist himself, but a weak ruler and politician. Abdicated during the Jurchen Jin siege of Kaifeng. Captured by the Jin shortly after; died in captivity Other names Refused to negotiate with the Jin, which led to a second invasion. Captured alongside his father during the Jingkang incident; died in captivity

Southern Song (1127–1279)

Other names A competent ruler that managed to preserve the Song dynasty, but often criticized for his military defeats and political failures. Abdicated in favor of his adopted son, later dying of natural causes Other names Often regarded as the most peaceful and stable ruler of the Southern Song. Abdicated in favour of his son, later dying of natural causes Other names Forced to abdicate in favor of his son, allegedly because of his mental instability. Died of natural causes Other names A weak and indecisive ruler who spent most of his life in isolation at the palace. Died of illness Other names Era(s) An emperor devoted to philosophy and the arts, he had to face the first Mongol incursions following the fall of the Jin. Died of illness Other names Relegated most imperial duties to his officers. Died of sudden illness Other names Ruled under the regency of Empress Xie, who was forced to surrender to the Mongols. Became a monk in Tibet, but was later executed of forced to commit suicide; died in Gansu Other names Spent most of his life fleeing from the Mongols by sea. Died of illness after barely surviving the sinking of his ship Thrown into the Xi River during the Battle of Yamen alongside several soldiers and officers as part of a mass suicide

Northern regimes (916–1234)

Liao dynasty (916–1125)

Western Xia (1038–1227)

Jin dynasty (1115–1234)

Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

Qing dynasty (1644–1912)

Citations

Sources

Six Dynasties & Mid Imperial Era

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