The Latvian language is an extensively inflected language, with complex nominal and verbal morphology. Word order is relatively free, but the unmarked order is subject–verb–object. Latvian has pre-nominal adjectives and both prepositions and postpositions. There are no articles in Latvian, but definiteness can be indicated by the endings of adjectives.

Nouns and adjectives

Latvian has two grammatical genders (masculine and feminine) and seven cases; there are no articles. Adjectives generally precede the nouns they modify, and agree in case, number, and gender. In addition, adjectives take distinct endings to indicate definite and indefinite interpretation: For details about the nominal morphology of Latvian (inflection of nouns, pronouns, numerals, and adjectives), see Latvian declension.

Verbs

Latvian has three simple tenses (present, past and future), and three compound perfect constructions: present perfect, past perfect, future perfect. Latvian verbs are used in five moods: The relations between tenses and moods are shown in the following table. (The table does not include quotative.) Latvian verbs have two voices, active and passive. The passive voice is analytic, combining an auxiliary verb (tikt "become", būt "be", or more rarely, tapt "become") and the past passive participle form of the verb. Reflexive verbs are marked morphologically by the suffix -s.

Conjugation classes

Unlike, for example, Romance languages where conjugation classes are assigned based on thematic vowels (e.g., -are, -ere, -ire forming, respectively, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd conjugation in Itali****an) Latvi****an verbs are classifi****ed in conjugations regardless of whether they end in -āt, -ēt, -īt, -ot or -t. The classification depends on whether the verb stem has a thematic vowel, and if so, whether it is retained in present tense.

Verb conjugation example

The following table illustrates conjugation of the verb lasīt – "to read." Lasīt belongs to the 1st subgroup of the third conjugation class, arguably the most regular one. Only present and past tenses differ among the three conjugation classes (see above), the future tense and other grammatical moods (discussed below) are formed regularly for all verbs with only rare exceptions. There is no differentiation between singular and plural of the 3rd person. The future is practically always formed regularly, by replacing the ending -t with the corresponding future ending (-šu, -si, -s, -sim, -siet (-sit), -s), e.g., lasīšu, strādāšu, celšu. The only exceptions are first conjugation verbs that end in -st or -zt and undergo sound shift to -s-, -z-, -t- or -d-, e.g., sviest, sviedīšu – "to throw, I will throw." 2nd person singular imperative is the same as present distinguished by omitting the pronoun tu, e.g., tu lasi, lasi! – "you read, read!" The putative 3rd person imperative is formed with the conjunction lai (etymologically a contraction of laid! – "let!") 1st person plural imperative mirrors the future of that same person and number omitting the pronoun mēs. Only the 2nd person plural imperative has a "unique" ending of its own -iet instead of indicative -at, -āt. Further, subjunctive in all persons and numbers without exceptions is formed by the addition of -u to the infinitive stem. Quotative (relative) follows the same agglutinative pattern. It is formed by adding the ending -ot to the first person stem either in present or future, in fact, addition of the ending -ot to the first person present stem follows the same pattern that gerund is formed in Latvian and the only irregular form – that of the verb būt ("to be") – esot corresponds to both the gerund ("being") and the quotative ("supposedly is") sense of the word (except, quotative unlike gerund can be derived from future stems as well.) In the case of compound tenses (which are not shown in the above table) the auxiliary verbs will take the -ot ending, e.g., es lasot, es esot lasījis, es lasīšot, es būšot (iz)lasījis – "I'm supposedly reading, I have supposedly been reading, I will supposedly read, I will supposedly have read." The putative jussive mood (a reported order) is formed introducing a quotative subordinate clause with the conjunction lai. Viņš teica, lai mēs lasot – "he supposedly said (ordered) us to read." However, jussive is not usually recognized as a distinct mood in Latvian literature. Debitive similarly follows the pattern. All persons are formed by declining the pronoun in the dative case and using the 3rd person present stem prefixed with jā-. Auxiliary verbs in case of compound tenses do not change, e.g., man jālasa, man bija jālasa, man ir bijis jālasa, man būs jālasa, man būs bijis jālasa – "I have to read, I had to read, I have had to read, I will have to read, I should have read" (literally "I will have to had read" where the future expresses rather a wish and replacing the future with subjunctive (man būtu bijis jālasa) would be less unorthodox.) More complex compound tenses/moods can be formed as well, e.g., quotative debitive: man būšot jālasa – "I will supposedly have to read," and so forth. Some authors question the status of Latvian debitive as a mood on the grounds that a mood by definition cannot be combined with another mood (as can be seen above.) Some speculate that the failure of the Latvian language to develop a verb "to have" has contributed to the development of debitive. To express possession of something as well as necessity Latvian uses similar constructions to those used by Finnic languages, for example: Quotative is considered to owe its existence to Livonian influence as well.

Participles

Prefixes (preverbs)

Latvian has a wide array of prefixes that can be used to modify nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs either in a qualitative sense (e.g., paliels – "kind of big") or a spatial sense (e.g., ieiet – "to enter; to go in.") In the context of verbs, however, some authors identify the role of Latvian prefixes as preverbs. That is, instead of conveying qualitative or spatial meaning they mark a grammatical aspect. Similarly to Slavic languages preverbs are used to indicate a perfective (completedness) aspect in simple past. The simple past without a perfective preverb can usually be translated in English using past continuous while the prefixed form could be translated using simple past or past perfect. Some classify the prefixed forms as an aorist, that is, a simple past with a perfective aspect as opposed to using present perfect or past perfect (auxiliary verb + participle) to convey a completed action. However, preverbs can be added to participles in present perfect and past perfect as well. Unlike Slavic languages Latvian does not have to rely on preverbs to imply future tense (future tense endings serve this purpose), however, preverbs can be added to future tense as well perhaps to stress expected completion of a task among other things.

Spatial adverbs

Constructions Non-prefixed verb + adverb are used to indicate aspectuality in Latvian.

Prepositions

Latvian has prepositions, and a small number of postpositions. Although each preposition requires a particular case (genitive, accusative, or dative) if the following noun phrase is singular, all plural noun phrases appear in the dative case after a preposition.

Literature