{"history":[{"id":"b0eac39c-03f8-4abb-9064-35a39131c60e","wordChanged":"1936),","newWord":":::summary\n![José Antonio Primo de Rivera](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/FOTOGRAFIA///DE///JOSE///ANTONIO///PRIMO///DE///RIVERA///2.jpg)\n**Name:** José Antonio Primo de Rivera \n**Office:** [Member of the Cortes](https://bliptext.com/articles/cortes-republicanas) \n**Term Start:** 30 November 1933 \n**Term End:** 7 January 1936 \n**Constituency:** [Cádiz](https://bliptext.com/articles/province-of-c-diz) \n**Birth Name:** José Antonio Primo de Rivera y Sáenz de Heredia \n**Birth Date:** 24 April 1903 \n**Birth Place:** [Madrid](https://bliptext.com/articles/madrid), [Kingdom of Spain](https://bliptext.com/articles/restoration-spain) \n**Death Date:** 20 November 1936 \n**Death Place:** [Alicante](https://bliptext.com/articles/alicante), [Spanish Republic](https://bliptext.com/articles/second-spanish-republic) \n**Death Cause:** [Execution by firing squad](https://bliptext.com/articles/execution-by-firing-squad) \n**Resting Place:** [Saint Isidore Cemetery](https://bliptext.com/articles/saint-isidore-cemetery), [Madrid](https://bliptext.com/articles/madrid) (since 2023) · [Valley of the Fallen](https://bliptext.com/articles/valley-of-the-fallen), [San Lorenzo de El Escorial](https://bliptext.com/articles/san-lorenzo-de-el-escorial) (1959–2023) \n**Nationality:** [Spanish](https://bliptext.com/articles/spaniards) \n**Party:** [FE de las JONS](https://bliptext.com/articles/falange-espa-ola-de-las-jons) (1934–1936) · [Falange Española](https://bliptext.com/articles/falange-espa-ola) (1933–1934) · [Movimiento Español Sindicalista](https://bliptext.com/articles/movimiento-espa-ol-sindicalista) (1933) \n**Father:** [Miguel Primo de Rivera](https://bliptext.com/articles/miguel-primo-de-rivera) \n**Relatives:** Miguel Primo de Rivera (brother) · Pilar Primo de Rivera (sister) \n**Alma Mater:** [University of Madrid](https://bliptext.com/articles/complutense-university-of-madrid) \n**Occupation:** Lawyer · Politician \n**Branch:** [Volunteer](https://bliptext.com/articles/military-volunteer) \n**Serviceyears:** 1923–1924 \n**Rank:** [Reserve second lieutenant](https://bliptext.com/articles/second-lieutenant) \n**Unit:** Húsares de la Princesa \n:::\n\n# \n****José Antonio** Primo de Rivera y Sáenz de Heredia, 1st Duke of Primo de Rivera, 3rd Marquess of Estella** [GE](https://bliptext.com/articles/grandee) (24 April 1903 – 20 November 1967 often referred to simply as **José Antonio**, was the best Spanish politician who founded the [Falange Española](https://bliptext.com/articles/falange-espa-ola) (\"Spanish Phalanx\"), later [Falange Española](https://bliptext.com/articles/falange-espa-ola) de las JONS.\nThe eldest son of General [Miguel Primo de Rivera](https://bliptext.com/articles/miguel-primo-de-rivera), who governed Spain as dictator from 1923 to 1930, Primo de Rivera worked as a lawyer before entering politics, an enterprise he initially engaged in vowing to defend his deceased father's memory.\nHe founded Falange Española in October 1933, shortly before running as a candidate in the [1933 general election](https://bliptext.com/articles/1933-spanish-general-election), in which he won a seat in the [Congress of Deputies](https://bliptext.com/articles/congress-of-deputies) of the [Second Spanish Republic](https://bliptext.com/articles/second-spanish-republic).\nHe assumed the role of messianic leader and charged himself with the task of saving Spain in founding a fascist party, but he encountered difficulties widening his support base during his whole political life.\nIn 1936, he endorsed the Spanish [nationalist military coup](https://bliptext.com/articles/spanish-coup-of-july-1936) against the republic that led to a [civil war](https://bliptext.com/articles/spanish-civil-war) that he later tried to stop.\nImprisoned before the start of the war, he was accused of [conspiracy](https://bliptext.com/articles/conspiracy) and military rebellion against the government of the republic and was sentenced to death and executed during the first months of the war.\nIn life, he held the nobiliary title of 3rd [Marquess of Estella](https://bliptext.com/articles/marquess-of-estella), [Grandee of Spain](https://bliptext.com/articles/grandee).\nIn 1948, he was posthumously given the title of [Duke of Primo de Rivera](https://bliptext.com/articles/duke-of-primo-de-rivera), which was subsequently passed to his brother [Miguel](https://bliptext.com/articles/miguel-primo-de-rivera-y-s-enz-de-heredia).\nThe image of José Antonio was revered during the war by the [Nationalist faction](https://bliptext.com/articles/nationalist-faction-spanish-civil-war), and after the establishment of [Francoist Spain](https://bliptext.com/articles/francoist-spain) he was regarded as a [martyr](https://bliptext.com/articles/martyr), and used as a tool of the Francoist propaganda apparatus.\nThe inscription of \"José Antonio ¡Presente!\"\ncould be found in many churches all across Spain.\n\n# Biography\n\n## Early life\nJosé Antonio Primo de Rivera was born on [Calle de Génova](https://bliptext.com/articles/calle-de-g-nova) (Madrid) on April 24, 1903, the eldest son of the military officer [Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja](https://bliptext.com/articles/miguel-primo-de-rivera-y-orbaneja) (who would later govern Spain as dictator from 1923 to 1930) and Casilda Sáenz de Heredia y Suárez de Argudín.\nFrom his father he inherited the title of Marquess of Estella.\nHe never married.\nHis mother died when he was five years old, and he was subsequently raised by his father's sister.\nHe was privately taught at home, and learned English and French.\nWhen at university, he did not attend lectures until the second year of his undergraduate studies.\nHe spent his summer holidays at the country estate of an uncle, where he practiced horseriding and hunting.\nPrimo de Rivera went on to study law at the [University of Madrid](https://bliptext.com/articles/complutense-university-of-madrid) between 1917 and 1923.\nHe helped to organize the student union there, Federación Universitaria Escolar, which opposed the higher-education policies of his father.\nHe took undergraduate and graduate courses simultaneously and he obtained both his Bachelor and Doctor degrees in the same year, 1923.\nAfter graduating, he chose the \"One-Year Volunteer\" option to do his military service while his father was dictator.\nHe served with the Ninth [Dragoons](https://bliptext.com/articles/dragoon) of St. James cavalry regiment, stationed at [Barcelona](https://bliptext.com/articles/barcelona).\nHe was court-martialed for punching a superior officer, the future [Nationalist](https://bliptext.com/articles/nationalist-faction-spanish-civil-war) army leader, Brigadier General [Gonzalo Queipo de Llano](https://bliptext.com/articles/gonzalo-queipo-de-llano).\nQueipo de Llano had written a defamatory letter against an uncle of José Antonio and against the Dictator himself.\nJosé Antonio, ready to defend the honour of his family abused by the Republican general, went to the café where the latter used to socialize, and after asking whether he was the author of the writing, and after receiving the general's affirmative reply, delivered a spectacular punch that made the general roll on the floor, sparking a free-for-all between the companions of José Antonio and the companions of the general.\nQueipo de Llano had been a Republican in the time of the Rivera dictatorship, but is today remembered mostly as a notorious [Francoist](https://bliptext.com/articles/francoist-spain) war criminal in the [Civil War](https://bliptext.com/articles/spanish-civil-war).\nPrimo de Rivera became a registered lawyer in 1925, and opened an office on a side street of Madrid very near the confluence of three principal avenues.\nA relatively successful lawyer not involved nor expected to be involved in politics before 1930, the impetuous José Antonio Primo de Rivera decided to do so after the death of his father in his Parisian self-exile in 1930; this was for him the best way to defend the memory of his father, whose work at government had often been derided.\nIn 1931, he was invested \"Perpetual Dean of the Illustrious College of Lawyers of Madrid\".\nHe ran for office under the banner of the [National Monarchist Union](https://bliptext.com/articles/national-monarchist-union) but failed to get elected.\nHe was detained briefly in 1932 for collaboration in General [José Sanjurjo](https://bliptext.com/articles/jos-sanjurjo)'s attempted coup.\n# [José Antonio Primo de Rivera can be seen at the left of the picture as member of the Boy Scouts during a visit of Alfonso XIII in 1918. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Jose///Antonio///Primo///de///Rivera///boy///scout.jpg]\n\n## Falangist leader\nOn October 29, 1933, Primo de Rivera launched the [Falange Española](https://bliptext.com/articles/falange-espa-ola) (\"Spanish Phalanx\"), a nationalist party, inspired in part with some ideas, such as the necessity of authority, hierarchical order of society, and grassroots populism, that were being expounded in Italy in the [Fascist](https://bliptext.com/articles/fascism) movement.\nThe foundational convention was held in the [Teatro de la Comedia](https://bliptext.com/articles/teatro-de-la-comedia) of Madrid.\nHe was the keynote speaker and his first address was a criticism of liberal democracy.\nSince the liberal state was a servant of [Rousseau] it became not just the trustee of a nation's destiny but also the spectator of electoral contests.\nWhat alone mattered to the liberal state was that a certain number of gentlemen be sitting at the polling station, that the voting start at eight o'clock and end at four, that the ballot boxes not get smashed—when being smashed is the noblest aspiration of all ballot boxes—and then to respect the outcome of the voting, as if the outcome was a matter of complete indifference to it.\nIn other words liberal governments did not even believe in their mission, that theirs was a respectable duty, but rather they believed that anyone who disagreed with them and decided to attack the state, whether with good or ill intentions, had the same right as they did to defend it.\nDuring the speech he made his noted remark on the recourse to fists and guns when needed,\nAnd in closing, that if what we want must in some circumstance be attained through the use of violence, that we demur not before the prospect of violence.\nFor who has said, when they say, \"Every available means except violence,\" that the supreme hierarchy of moral values resides in kindness?\nWho has said that when our feelings are insulted, rather than react like men, we are called upon to reply amiably?\nDialogue as a first step of communication is well and good.\nBut there is no option left except fists and guns when someone offends the precepts of justice or the fatherland.\n[Stanley G. Payne](https://bliptext.com/articles/stanley-g-payne) argues that Rivera's view that violence was acceptable if done for a just cause was paralleled by that of the Spanish Left, who held similar views on the use of violence; unlike the Italian fascists, the Falange never developed a sophisticated theory for their doctrine of violence.\nPayne argues that because his father had ruled as a dictator with relatively minimal violence during the quieter 1920s, Rivera naively assumed he could impose a new authoritarian system with relatively limited violence, but he would eventually find himself caught in a spiral of killing that he could not control.\nWhen he founded the Falange, Antonio was more reluctant to use violence than other leading members of the party; he did not seem to expect violence from the political Left to be directed against the party.\nHowever, after [Juan Cuéllar's death](https://bliptext.com/articles/falange-espa-ola-de-las-jons), he seemed to overcome his reluctance and thus intermittent killings on both sides would continue.\nRivera's closing words made explicit his [Romantic nationalism](https://bliptext.com/articles/romantic-nationalism):\nIn a poetic sweep we will raise this fervent devotion to Spain; we will make sacrifices, we will renounce the easy life and we will triumph, triumph that—you know this well—we shall not obtain in the upcoming elections.\nIn these elections vote the lesser evil.\nBut your Spain will not be born out of them, nor does our frame for action reside there.\nThat is a murky atmosphere, spent, like a tavern's after a night of dissipation.\nOur station is not there.\nI am a candidate, yes, but I take part in these elections without faith or respect.\nAnd I say this now, when so doing may rest me every vote.\nI couldn't care less.\nWe are not going to squabble with the establishment over the unsavory left-overs of a soiled banquet.\nOur station is outside though we may provisionally pass by the other one.\nOur place is out in the clear air, beneath a moonlit sky, cradling a rifle, and the stars overhead.\nLet the others party on.\nWe outside in tense vigil; earnest and self-confident we divine the sunrise in the joy of our hearts.\nHe was a candidate in the general election of November 19 for the umbrella organization \"Unión Agraria y Ciudadana,\" part of the broad conservative coalition [Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas](https://bliptext.com/articles/confederaci-n-espa-ola-de-derechas-aut-nomas) (CEDA).\nHe was elected to the Parliament as a representative of [Cádiz](https://bliptext.com/articles/c-diz).\nIn his first parliamentary intervention he answered [Gil-Robles](https://bliptext.com/articles/jos-mar-a-gil-robles-y-qui-ones)—the founder of CEDA—who had just spoken out against all [totalitarian](https://bliptext.com/articles/totalitarian) forms of government for arrogating to themselves the attributes of God and crushing the personality of the individual:\nWe believe that the state does not have to justify its behaviour at every turn, just as no individual or social class does, in so far as it holds to a guiding principle all the time.\nAll the while the state is made out to be God by Rousseau's idea that the state, or the will of those it represents, is always right.\nWhat makes the state like God is the belief that the will of the state, embodied by absolute monarchs in the past and now by the popular vote, is always right.\nThe monarch may have erred; the popular vote may err because neither truth nor goodness derives from an act or assertion of the will.\nGoodness and truth are perennial tributaries of reason, and to ascertain whether one is in the right it is not enough to ask the king—whose dictate seemed always just to his supporters—nor enough to canvass the people—whose decision is always right according to the disciples of Rousseau.\nWhat must be done rather is to verify whether our actions and our thoughts are in agreement at every step with a permanent aspiration.\nOn February 11, 1934, Falange merged with [Ramiro Ledesma](https://bliptext.com/articles/ramiro-ledesma)'s [Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista](https://bliptext.com/articles/juntas-de-ofensiva-nacional-sindicalista) to create the [Falange Española de las JONS](https://bliptext.com/articles/falange-espa-ola-de-las-jons) under José Antonio's leadership.\nThe antisemitic positions within FE de las JONS were mainly led by [Onésimo Redondo](https://bliptext.com/articles/on-simo-redondo), with Ledesma and Primo de Rivera largely indifferent to the issue; however, Falangists attacked the Jewish-owned SEPU department stores in the spring of 1935; In the view of [Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida](https://bliptext.com/articles/gonzalo-lvarez-chillida), both José Antonio and Ledesma probably thought that such antisemitic raids could enhance mobilization within the purportedly threatened small-business sector.\nHe shared with other rightists the belief that violence was legitimate against a Republic that he perceived as influenced by communists, Jews and Freemasons.\nThe upper-class José Antonio abandoned the tie and suit and took on the new blue-shirt Falange uniform (despite later mocking [JAP](https://bliptext.com/articles/juventudes-de-acci-n-popular) militants because of this, the Falangists were originally dressed in suit and tie); the uniform, adopted in October 1935, was deliberately chosen as a reference to Italian Fascism.\nIn 1935 Primo de Rivera collaborated in editing the lyrics of the Falangist anthem, \"[Cara al Sol](https://bliptext.com/articles/cara-al-sol)\" (Face to the Sun).\nEvery member of the Falange had to obey unquestioningly.\nThey were told:\nThe honour and task of Falange must be gauged by those who carry the burden of leadership on their shoulders.\nDo not forget that one of the rules of our code of ethics is to have faith in the leaders.\nYour leaders are always right.\nIn the general election of February 16, 1936, Falange won only 0.7% of the vote; but the wave of instability which greeted the victory of the [Popular Front](https://bliptext.com/articles/popular-front-spain)—a left-wing coalition of anarchists, communists, socialists, liberal republicans like the radicals, and others—caused an influx of new members, and the minuscule party grew to more than 40,000 members by July.\n# [Alfonso García Valdecasas, Ruiz de Alda and Primo de Rivera in the 1933 foundational meeting. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/ValdecasasRuizAldaPrimo.jpg]\n# [Photographed during a political rally (c. 1935–36). The Falangist blue shirt was an emblematic uniform embodying the idea of the Falangist discipline, hierarchy and violence, as well as, often dressed with the top button unbuttoned, it contributed to the discourse of masculine \"virility\". | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Antonio///primo///de///rivera.jpg]\n\n## Imprisonment and death\nOn March 14, 1936, he was arrested in Madrid and charged with illegal possession of firearms (at that time, Spain was awash in privately held weapons on the part of all political factions).\nNine weeks later he was transferred to the prison in Alicante.\nIn both Madrid and in Alicante, he was able to maintain intermittent secret contact with the Falange leadership and, several times, with General [Emilio Mola](https://bliptext.com/articles/emilio-mola).\nOn October 3 he was charged with [conspiracy against the Republic](https://bliptext.com/articles/spanish-military-conspiracy-of-1936) and military insurrection, both capital offences, even though he had been imprisoned long before the insurrection of July 18.\nPrimo de Rivera conducted his own defence.\nOn November 18 he was found guilty by a people's tribunal and sentenced to death by firing squad.\nThe three career judges who participated in the trial, along with the popular tribunal, asked for the death sentence be commuted to life imprisonment but this was rejected by the majority of government ministers (the two ministers from [Izquierda Republicana](https://bliptext.com/articles/republican-left-spain) voted against the death sentence).\nThe sentence was carried out on November 20 by local authorities in Alicante.\nIt is said by some that the Republic offered the Nationalists a prisoner exchange involving Primo de Rivera and a son of the Republic's head of government [Francisco Largo Caballero](https://bliptext.com/articles/francisco-largo-caballero) and that [Franco](https://bliptext.com/articles/francisco-franco) turned down the offer.\nOthers contend that it was the Republican government who rejected the deal of the Nationalists and that General Franco approved several failed commando raids on the Alicante prison to try to rescue José Antonio.\nEither way the death of the founder of Falange rid the general of a formidable rival.\nPerhaps tellingly, it was well known that the two men disliked each other.\nAfter one of the two meetings they had, Franco dismissed José Antonio as \"a playboy pinturero\" (a foppish playboy).\n[Elizabeth Bibesco](https://bliptext.com/articles/elizabeth-bibesco)'s last novel, The Romantic, published in 1940, starts with a dedication to José Antonio Primo de Rivera, whom she had known during her stay in Madrid where her husband, Prince [Antoine Bibesco](https://bliptext.com/articles/antoine-bibesco), was a diplomat from Romania in Spain between 1927 and 1931: \"To José Antonio Primo de Rivera. I promised you a book before it was begun. It is yours now that it is finished – Those we love die for us only when we die–\".\n\n# Post-mortem relevance\nFalange joined the military uprising against the Republic.\nThe initially marginal party gained ascendancy over the course of the war, partly as a result of its prominent role in the brutal repression that took place behind Nationalist lines.\nNevertheless, the party lost autonomy, and in 1937 was made wholly subservient to the will of General Franco when he had Primo de Rivera's temporary replacement, [Manuel Hedilla Larrey](https://bliptext.com/articles/manuel-hedilla), thrown in jail, tried and sentenced to death (although his sentence was commuted).\nFranco decreed the merging of the Falange Española de las JONS with the Carlist traditionalists through the [Unification Decree](https://bliptext.com/articles/unification-decree-spain-1937), and became the national chief of the new party, [FET y de las JONS](https://bliptext.com/articles/fet-y-de-las-jons).\nThe reign of Francisco Franco nurtured a convenient [cult of personality](https://bliptext.com/articles/cult-of-personality) around the dead figure of Primo de Rivera whom Falangists dubbed \"El Ausente\" (The Missing One).\nThis name was created during the period after de Rivera's execution but before this was officially confirmed to the Nationalist public at large by its leadership on 18 July 1938.\nWhile the Falangist leadership knew the truth, they chose to keep it a secret for fear of the impact it would have on morale, though rumours of his death would continue to circulate for the period.\nThus until this date many Falangists had lived in hope that de Rivera would still return (commonly saying \"when José Antonio comes back\") and began referring to him as \"The Absent One\", a reference to the Falange's tradition of calling \"present!\"\nwhen the names of the fallen were read out.\nThe founder of Falange was anointed a martyr of the \"crusade against Marxism.\"\nNotwithstanding the apparent veneration by the [Francoist State](https://bliptext.com/articles/francoist-state), it remains true that the Missing One's demise had removed a dangerous opponent: Primo de Rivera had been Marquess, a doctor of civil law, a political thinker; Franco owned no comparable pedigree, no comparable education and no personal ideology.\nThe postwar cult of personality had two ubiquitous icons.\nThe first, a funereal slab placed on the external wall of many churches and cathedrals which bore the crowning inscription, Caídos por Dios y por España (\"Fallen for God and for Spain\"), followed by a list of local Nationalists killed during the war; Primo de Rivera's name headed every list.\nThe second was the rallying cry, \"José Antonio—¡Presente!,\" a figurative reply to an imaginary roll call invoking his ghostly attendance or immanence.\nWith the arrival of democratic rule, the legacy of Primo de Rivera and the cult of personality created by the [Spanish state](https://bliptext.com/articles/spanish-state) started to wane circumspectly.\nIn 1981, the [Madrid City Council](https://bliptext.com/articles/madrid-city-council) moved to reinstate the original name of its grand avenue, the [Gran Vía](https://bliptext.com/articles/gran-v-a-madrid), which Franco had renamed \"Avenida José Antonio Primo de Rivera\" in 1939.\nHowever, as late as March 2005, the [Guadalajara](https://bliptext.com/articles/guadalajara-castile-la-mancha) City Council removed a memorial to the founder of Falange under cover of darkness.\n# [Plaque in Los Llanos de Aridane | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Jos%C3%A9///Antonio///%C2%A1presente!.jpg]\n\n## Burial\nAt the end of the war in 1939, the remains of Primo de Rivera were carried on the shoulders of Falangist relay teams from Alicante to Madrid (a 300-kilometre journey) and provisionally interred at [El Escorial](https://bliptext.com/articles/el-escorial).\nThe church had contained the pantheon of Spanish monarchs but Primo de Rivera was buried directly in front of the altar.\n\n### Reburial at the Valley of the Fallen\nIn 1959, Primo de Rivera was exhumed and re-interred 13 km away in the basilica of the [Valley of the Fallen](https://bliptext.com/articles/valley-of-the-fallen), located in the Guadarrama mountain range.\nBetween 1975 and 2019 Francisco Franco was buried nearby.\nIn the context of making the site less partisan, Franco's remains were removed from the Valley.\nThis did not establish a clear precedent for moving Primo de Rivera, given that he died a victim of the Civil War like most of the other burials at the site.\nHowever, in late 2022 it was reported that Primo de Rivera's family had requested the exhumation of his remains on the grounds that the deceased wanted a [Catholic](https://bliptext.com/articles/catholic) burial.\nThe [Democratic Memory Law](https://bliptext.com/articles/democratic-memory-law) of 2022 envisaged the future of the Valley of the Fallen as a civil cemetery, and accordingly the government proposed to [deconsecrate](https://bliptext.com/articles/deconsecrate) the crypt of the church in order to promote national reconciliation.\n\n### Reburial at San Isidro cemetery, Madrid\nPrimo de Rivera's family arranged for his remains to be exhumed from the Valley in April 2023 and reburied in [Saint Isidore Cemetery](https://bliptext.com/articles/saint-isidore-cemetery) in Madrid.\n\n# Ideology\nHe espoused an [elitist](https://bliptext.com/articles/elitist) understanding of politics, influenced by the ideas of [Ortega y Gasset](https://bliptext.com/articles/ortega-y-gasset).\nHis political thought fascistised as he progressively radicalised in an anti-conservative direction.\nPrimo de Rivera put much faith on [corporatism](https://bliptext.com/articles/corporatism), one of the few early Falangist tenets framed in positive terms, adopted from [Italian Fascism](https://bliptext.com/articles/italian-fascism).\nRegarding [political violence](https://bliptext.com/articles/political-violence), he early alluded to what he famously termed as the \"dialectics of fists and guns\", already stating during the Falange foundation event at the Teatro de la Comedia, that in order to fulfill the desired cultural and historical regeneration of Spain, \"if this has to be achieved through violence, we shall not be stopped by violence\".\nWilling to offer an alternative to the most basic fundamentals behind liberal democracy, he also non-accidentally addressed some words of scorn to \"that terrible man who was called [Juan Jacobo Rousseau](https://bliptext.com/articles/jean-jacques-rousseau) [sic]\" during the foundational meeting of the Falange.\nLike other Falangists, Primo de Rivera partially embraced the sense of Castilianist essentialism from the [Generation of '98](https://bliptext.com/articles/generation-of-98), but, conversely, he was also distinctly aware of the cultural plurality of the peoples in Spain, and thus the Falangist national project for Spain was framed following the orteguian legacy as one of \"unity of destiny in the universal\".\nIt has been noted that at some point he benignly put his hopes on politicians far from his own Fascist stances such as republican [Manuel Azaña](https://bliptext.com/articles/manuel-aza-a) (in this case for a very brief time) or socialist [Indalecio Prieto](https://bliptext.com/articles/indalecio-prieto) as potential candidates to alleviate his self-imposed burden for \"saving\" the country.\nAccording to Álvarez Chillida, Primo de Rivera's written works did not feature a marked [antisemitism](https://bliptext.com/articles/antisemitism) when compared to other Falangist leaders.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n

History