{"history":[],"article":{"id":"7402c58d-a971-4327-af95-3428d8158c4e","title":"Indonesian language","slug":"indonesian-language","content":":::summary\n**Name:** Indonesian \n**Nativename:** Bahasa Indonesia \n**States:** [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia) \n**Region:** Indonesia (as official language) · Significant language speakers: [Malaysia](https://bliptext.com/articles/malaysia), [East Timor](https://bliptext.com/articles/east-timor), [Singapore](https://bliptext.com/articles/singapore), [Saudi Arabia](https://bliptext.com/articles/saudi-arabia), [Australia](https://bliptext.com/articles/australia), [Taiwan](https://bliptext.com/articles/taiwan), [Netherlands](https://bliptext.com/articles/netherlands), [Japan](https://bliptext.com/articles/japan), [South Korea](https://bliptext.com/articles/south-korea), and [others](https://bliptext.com/articles/overseas-indonesians) \n**Ethnicity:** Over [1,300 Indonesian ethnic groups](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethnic-groups-in-indonesia) \n**Speakers:** [L1 speakers](https://bliptext.com/articles/first-language): million \n**Date:** 2020 census \n**Speakers 2:** [L2 speakers](https://bliptext.com/articles/second-language): million (2020 census) · Total speakers: million (2020 Census) \n**Familycolor:** Austronesian \n**Fam 2:** [Malayo-Polynesian](https://bliptext.com/articles/malayo-polynesian-languages) \n**Fam 3:** [Malayic](https://bliptext.com/articles/malayic-languages) \n**Fam 4:** [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language) \n**Ancestor:** [Old Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-malay) \n**Ancestor 2:** [Classical Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/classical-malay) (Riau Malay) \n**Ancestor 3:** [Pre-Modern Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/pre-modern-malay) ([Netherlands Indies Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-east-indies)/[Balai Pustaka Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/balai-pustaka)) \n**Script:** [Latin](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin-script) ([Indonesian alphabet](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-orthography)) · [Indonesian Braille](https://bliptext.com/articles/grade-1-braille) \n**Nation:** 🇮🇩 [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia) · [UNESCO](https://bliptext.com/articles/undefined) \n**Minority:** [East Timor](https://bliptext.com/articles/undefined) ([Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia)n used as a working language and a trade language with [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia)) \n**Agency:** [Language Development and Fostering Agency](https://bliptext.com/articles/language-development-and-fostering-agency) (Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa) \n**Iso 1:** id \n**Iso 2:** ind \n**Iso 3:** ind \n**Lingua:** 33-AFA-ac \n**Map:** Indonesian Language Map.svg \n**Mapcaption:** {{legend|#000080|Countries of the world where Indonesian is an official, national language}} · {{legend|#00FFFD|Countries where Indonesian is a minority language or working language}} \n**Notice:** IPA \n**Sign:** SIBI (Manually Coded Indonesian) \n**Glotto:** indo1316 \n**Glottorefname:** Indonesian \n**Stand 1:** [Standard Indonesian](https://bliptext.com/articles/standard-language) \n**Dia 1:** [Colloquial Indonesian](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-slang) (especially Colloquial Jakarta Indonesian) \n:::\n\n# \n**[Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia)n** (Bahasa [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia); ) is the [official](https://bliptext.com/articles/official-language) and [national language](https://bliptext.com/articles/national-language) of [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia).\nIt is a [standardized](https://bliptext.com/articles/standard-language) [variety](https://bliptext.com/articles/variety-linguistics) of [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language), an [Austronesian language](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-languages) that has been used as a [lingua franca](https://bliptext.com/articles/lingua-franca) in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries.\nWith over 280 million inhabitants, Indonesia ranks as the [fourth most populous nation](https://bliptext.com/articles/list-of-countries-by-population) globally.\nAccording to the 2020 census, over 97% of Indonesians are fluent in Indonesian, making it the largest language by number of speakers in [Southeast Asia](https://bliptext.com/articles/southeast-asia) and one of the [most widely](https://bliptext.com/articles/list-of-languages-by-total-number-of-speakers) spoken languages in the world.\nIndonesian vocabulary has been influenced by various regional languages such as [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language), [Sundanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/sundanese-language), [Minangkabau](https://bliptext.com/articles/minangkabau-language), [Balinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/balinese-language), [Banjarese](https://bliptext.com/articles/banjar-language), and [Buginese](https://bliptext.com/articles/bugis-language), as well as by foreign languages such as [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic-language), [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language), [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language), and [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language).\nMany borrowed words have been adapted to fit the phonetic and grammatical rules of Indonesian, enriching the language and reflecting Indonesia's diverse linguistic heritage.\nMost Indonesians, aside from speaking the national language, are fluent in at least one of the more than 700 indigenous [local languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/languages-of-indonesia); examples include [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language) and [Sundanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/sundanese-language), which are commonly used at home and within the local community.\nHowever, most formal [education](https://bliptext.com/articles/education) and nearly all national [mass media](https://bliptext.com/articles/mass-media), [governance](https://bliptext.com/articles/governance), [administration](https://bliptext.com/articles/public-administration), and [judiciary](https://bliptext.com/articles/judiciary) and other forms of communication are conducted in Indonesian.\nUnder Indonesian rule from 1976 to 1999, Indonesian was designated as the official language of [Timor Leste](https://bliptext.com/articles/timor-leste).\nIt has the status of a [working language](https://bliptext.com/articles/working-language) under the country's [constitution](https://bliptext.com/articles/constitution-of-east-timor) along with [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language).\nIn November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognized as one of the official languages of the [UNESCO](https://bliptext.com/articles/unesco) General Conference.\nThe term Indonesian is primarily associated with the national standard dialect (bahasa baku).\nHowever, in a looser sense, it also encompasses the various local varieties spoken throughout the Indonesian archipelago.\nStandard Indonesian is confined mostly to formal situations, existing in a [diglossic](https://bliptext.com/articles/diglossia) relationship with vernacular Malay varieties, which are commonly used for daily communication, coexisting with the aforementioned regional languages and with [Malay creoles](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-trade-and-creole-languages); standard Indonesian is spoken in informal speech as a lingua franca between vernacular Malay dialects, [Malay creoles](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-trade-and-creole-languages), and regional languages.\nThe Indonesian name for the language (bahasa Indonesia) is also occasionally used in [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language) and other languages.\nBahasa Indonesia is sometimes improperly reduced to Bahasa, which refers to the Indonesian subject (Bahasa Indonesia) taught in schools, on the assumption that this is the name of the language.\nBut the word bahasa only means language.\nFor example, French language is translated as bahasa Prancis, and the same applies to other languages, such as bahasa Inggris (English), bahasa Jepang (Japanese), bahasa Arab (Arabic), bahasa Italia (Italian), and so on.\nIndonesians generally may not recognize the name Bahasa alone when it refers to their national language.\n# [The Youth Pledge, a pledge made by Indonesian youth on October 28, 1928, defining the identity of the Indonesian nation. On the last pledge, there was an affirmation of Indonesian language as a unifying language throughout the archipelago. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Youthpledge.jpg]\n\n# History\n\n## Early kingdoms era\nStandard Indonesian is a [standard language](https://bliptext.com/articles/standard-language) of \"Riau Malay\", which despite its common name is not based on the vernacular Malay dialects of the [Riau Islands](https://bliptext.com/articles/riau-islands), but rather represents a form of [Classical Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/classical-malay) as used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in the [Riau-Lingga Sultanate](https://bliptext.com/articles/riau-lingga-sultanate).\nClassical Malay had emerged as a literary language in the royal courts along both shores of the [Strait of Malacca](https://bliptext.com/articles/strait-of-malacca), including the [Johor Sultanate](https://bliptext.com/articles/johor-sultanate) and [Malacca Sultanate](https://bliptext.com/articles/malacca-sultanate).\nOriginally spoken in Northeast [Sumatra](https://bliptext.com/articles/sumatra), Malay has been used as a [lingua franca](https://bliptext.com/articles/lingua-franca) in the Indonesian [archipelago](https://bliptext.com/articles/archipelago) for half a millennium.\nIt might be attributed to its [ancestor](https://bliptext.com/articles/ancestor), the [Old Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-malay) language (which can be traced back to the 7th century).\nThe [Kedukan Bukit Inscription](https://bliptext.com/articles/kedukan-bukit-inscription) is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, the language used by [Srivijayan](https://bliptext.com/articles/srivijayan) empire.\nSince the 7th century, the Old Malay language has been used in [Nusantara (archipelago)](https://bliptext.com/articles/nusantara-archipelago) (Indonesian archipelago), evidenced by Srivijaya inscriptions and by other inscriptions from [coastal](https://bliptext.com/articles/coast) areas of the archipelago, such as [Sojomerto inscription](https://bliptext.com/articles/sojomerto-inscription).\n# [Rencong alphabet, native writing systems found in central and South Sumatra. The text reads (Voorhoeve's spelling): \"haku manangis ma / njaru ka'u ka'u di / saru tijada da / tang [hitu hadik sa]\", which is translated by Voorhoeve as: \"I am weeping, calling you; though called, you do not come\" (in modern Malay \"Aku menangis, menyerukan engkau, kaudiseru, tiada datang [itu adik satu]\"). | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Kerinci///MSS///detail.jpg]\n# [Kedukan Bukit Inscription, written in Pallava script, is the oldest surviving specimen of the Old Malay language. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Prasasti///Kedukan///Bukit///1.jpg]\n\n## Old Malay as lingua franca\n[Trade](https://bliptext.com/articles/trade) contacts carried on by various [ethnic](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethnic-group) peoples at the time were the main [vehicle](https://bliptext.com/articles/vehicle) for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main [communications](https://bliptext.com/articles/communications) medium among the traders.\nUltimately, the Old Malay language became a [lingua franca](https://bliptext.com/articles/lingua-franca) and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago.\nIndonesian (in its standard form) has essentially the same material basis as the [Malaysian](https://bliptext.com/articles/malaysian-language) standard of Malay and is therefore considered to be a variety of the pluricentric Malay language.\nHowever, it does [differ](https://bliptext.com/articles/comparison-of-standard-malay-and-indonesian) from Malaysian Malay in several respects, with [differ](https://bliptext.com/articles/comparison-of-standard-malay-and-indonesian)ences in pronunciation and vocabulary.\nThese differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian.\nIndonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar (lit. 'market Malay'), which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands.\nMalaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been heavily influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax, by English.\nThe question of whether High Malay (Court Malay) or Low Malay (Bazaar Malay) was the true parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate.\nHigh Malay was the official language used in the court of the [Johor Sultanate](https://bliptext.com/articles/johor-sultanate) and continued by the Dutch-administered territory of [Riau-Lingga](https://bliptext.com/articles/riau-lingga), while Low Malay was commonly used in marketplaces and ports of the archipelago.\nSome linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language.\n# [224x224px | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Srivijaya///Empire.svg]\n\n## Colonial era and the birth of Indonesian\nWhen the [Dutch East India Company](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-east-india-company) (VOC) first arrived in the archipelago at the start of the 1600s, the Malay language was a significant trading and political language due to the influence of the [Malaccan Sultanate](https://bliptext.com/articles/malacca-sultanate) and later the [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portugal).\nHowever, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity.\nThe VOC adopted the Malay language as the administrative language of their trading outpost in the east.\nFollowing the [bankruptcy](https://bliptext.com/articles/bankruptcy) of the VOC, the [Batavian Republic](https://bliptext.com/articles/batavian-republic) took control of the [colony](https://bliptext.com/articles/colony) in 1799, and it was only then that education in and promotion of Dutch began in the [colony](https://bliptext.com/articles/colony).\nEven then, Dutch administrators were remarkably reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes.\nDutch thus remained the language of a small elite: in 1940, only 2% of the total population could speak Dutch.\nNevertheless, it did have a significant influence on the development of Malay in the colony: during the colonial era, the language that would be standardized as Indonesian absorbed a large amount of Dutch vocabulary in the form of [loanwords](https://bliptext.com/articles/loanwords).\nThe [nationalist movement](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-national-awakening) that ultimately brought Indonesian to its national language status rejected [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) from the outset.\nHowever, the rapid disappearance of Dutch was a very unusual case compared with other colonized countries, where the colonial language generally has continued to function as the language of politics, [bureaucracy](https://bliptext.com/articles/bureaucracy), education, [technology](https://bliptext.com/articles/technology), and other fields of importance for a significant time after independence.\nThe Indonesian scholar Soenjono Dardjowidjojo even goes so far as to say that when compared to the situation in other Asian countries such as India, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines, \"Indonesian is perhaps the only language that has achieved the status of a national language in its true sense\" since it truly dominates in all spheres of [Indonesian society](https://bliptext.com/articles/culture-of-indonesia).\nThe ease with which Indonesia eliminated the language of its former colonial power can perhaps be explained as much by Dutch [policy](https://bliptext.com/articles/policy) as by Indonesian nationalism.\nIn marked contrast to the [French](https://bliptext.com/articles/france), [Spanish](https://bliptext.com/articles/spain) and Portuguese, who pursued an [assimilation](https://bliptext.com/articles/cultural-assimilation) colonial policy, or even the [British](https://bliptext.com/articles/british-empire), the Dutch did not attempt to spread their language among the indigenous population.\nIn fact, they consciously prevented the language from being spread by refusing to provide education, especially in Dutch, to the native Indonesians so they would not come to see themselves as equals.\nMoreover, the Dutch wished to prevent the Indonesians from elevating their perceived social status by taking on elements of Dutch culture.\nThus, until the 1930s, they maintained a minimalist regime and allowed Malay to spread quickly throughout the archipelago.Dutch dominance at that time covered nearly all aspects, with official forums requiring the use of Dutch, although since the Second Youth Congress (1928) the use of Indonesian as the national language was agreed on as one of the tools in the independence struggle.\nAs of it, [Mohammad Hoesni Thamrin](https://bliptext.com/articles/mohammad-hoesni-thamrin) inveighed actions underestimating Indonesian.\nAfter some criticism and protests, the use of Indonesian was allowed since the Volksraad sessions held in July 1938.\nBy the time they tried to counter the spread of Malay by teaching Dutch to the natives, it was too late, and in 1942, the Japanese conquered Indonesia.\nThe Japanese mandated that all official business be conducted in Indonesian and quickly outlawed the use of the Dutch language.\nThree years later, the Indonesians themselves formally abolished the language and established bahasa Indonesia as the national language of the new nation.\nThe term bahasa Indonesia itself had been proposed by [Mohammad Tabrani](https://bliptext.com/articles/mohammad-tabrani) in 1926, and Tabrani had further proposed the term over calling the language [Malay language](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language) during the First Youth Congress in 1926.\n\"Indonesian language (old VOS spelling): Jang dinamakan 'Bahasa Indonesia' jaitoe bahasa Melajoe jang soenggoehpoen pokoknja berasal dari 'Melajoe Riaoe' akan tetapi jang soedah ditambah, dioebah ataoe dikoerangi menoeroet keperloean zaman dan alam baharoe, hingga bahasa itoe laloe moedah dipakai oleh rakjat diseloeroeh Indonesia; pembaharoean bahasa Melajoe hingga menjadi bahasa Indonesia itoe haroes dilakoekan oleh kaoem ahli jang beralam baharoe, ialah alam kebangsaan Indonesia\nIndonesian (modern EYD spelling):\nYang dinamakan 'Bahasa Indonesia' yaitu bahasa Melayu yang sungguhpun pokoknya berasal dari 'Melayu Riau' akan tetapi yang sudah ditambah, diubah atau dikurangi menurut keperluan zaman dan alam baru, hingga bahasa itu lalu mudah dipakai oleh rakyat di seluruh Indonesia; pembaharuan bahasa Melayu hingga menjadi bahasa Indonesia itu harus dilakukan oleh kaum ahli yang beralam baru, ialah alam kebangsaan Indonesia\nEnglish:\n'What is named as 'Indonesian language' is a true Malay language derived from 'Riau Malay' but which had been added, modified or subscribed according to the requirements of the new age and nature, until it was then used easily by people across Indonesia; the renewal of Malay language until it became Indonesian it had to be done by the experts of the new nature, the national nature of Indonesia'\n— Ki Hajar Dewantara in the Congress of Indonesian Language I 1938, Solo\"\nSeveral years prior to the congress, Swiss linguist, [Renward Brandstetter](https://bliptext.com/articles/renward-brandstetter) wrote [An Introduction to Indonesian Linguistics](https://bliptext.com/articles/an-introduction-to-indonesian-linguistics) in 4 essays from 1910 to 1915.\nThe essays were translated into English in 1916.\nBy \"Indonesia\", he meant [the name of the geographical region](https://bliptext.com/articles/names-of-indonesia), and by \"Indonesian languages\" he meant [Malayo-Polynesian languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/malayo-polynesian-languages) west of New Guinea, because by that time there was still no notion of Indonesian language.\n[Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana](https://bliptext.com/articles/sutan-takdir-alisjahbana) was a great promoter of the use and development of Indonesian and he was greatly exaggerating the decline of Dutch.\nHigher education was still in Dutch and many educated Indonesians were writing and speaking in Dutch in many situations (and were still doing so well after independence was achieved).\nHe believed passionately in the need to develop Indonesian so that it could take its place as a fully adequate national language, able to replace Dutch as a means of entry into modern international culture.\nIn 1933, he began the magazine Pujangga Baru (New Writer — Poedjangga Baroe in the original spelling) with co-editors Amir Hamzah and Armijn Pane.\nThe language of Pujangga Baru came in for criticism from those associated with the more classical School Malay and it was accused of publishing Dutch written with an Indonesian vocabulary.\nAlisjahbana would no doubt have taken the criticism as a demonstration of his success.\nTo him the language of Pujangga Baru pointed the way to the future, to an elaborated, Westernised language able to express all the concepts of the modern world.\nAs an example, among the many innovations they condemned was use of the word bisa instead of dapat for 'can'.\nIn Malay bisa meant only 'poison from an animal's bite' and the increasing use of Javanese bisa in the new meaning they regarded as one of the many threats to the language's purity.\nUnlike more traditional intellectuals, he did not look to Classical Malay and the past.\nFor him, Indonesian was a new concept; a new beginning was needed and he looked to Western civilisation, with its dynamic society of individuals freed from traditional fetters, as his inspiration.\nThe prohibition on use of Dutch led to an expansion of Indonesian language newspapers and pressure on them to increase the language's wordstock.\nThe Japanese agreed to the establishment of the Komisi Bahasa (Language Commission) in October 1942, formally headed by three Japanese but with a number of prominent Indonesian intellectuals playing the major part in its activities.\nSoewandi, later to be Minister of Education and Culture, was appointed secretary, Alisjahbana was appointed an 'expert secretary' and other members included the future president and vice-president, Sukarno and Hatta.\nJournalists, beginning a practice that has continued to the present, did not wait for the Komisi Bahasa to provide new words, but actively participated themselves in coining terms.\nMany of the Komisi Bahasa's terms never found public acceptance and after the Japanese period were replaced by the original Dutch forms, including jantera (Sanskrit for 'wheel'), which temporarily replaced mesin (machine), ketua negara (literally 'chairman of state'), which had replaced presiden (president) and kilang (meaning 'mill'), which had replaced pabrik (factory).\nIn a few cases, however, coinings permanently replaced earlier Dutch terms, including pajak (earlier meaning 'monopoly') instead of belasting (tax) and senam (meaning 'exercise') instead of gimnastik (gymnastics).\nThe Komisi Bahasa is said to have coined more than 7000 terms, although few of these gained common acceptance.\n# [Volksraad session held in July 1938 in Jakarta, where Indonesian was formally used for the first time by Jahja Datoek Kajo | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/COLLECTIE///TROPENMUSEUM///Opening///van///de///Volksraad///door///gouverneur-generaal///Van///Limburg///Stirum///op///18///mei///1918///op///Java///TMnr///10001373.jpg]\n# [Propaganda posters from Japanese-occupied Dutch East Indies | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Poster///Propaganda///Jepang.jpg]\n\n## Adoption as the national language\nThe adoption of Indonesian as the country's national language was in contrast to most other post-colonial states.\nNeither the language with the most native speakers (Javanese) nor the language of the former European colonial power (Dutch) was to be adopted.\nInstead, a local language with far fewer native speakers than the most widely spoken local language was chosen (nevertheless, Malay was the second most widely spoken language in the colony after Javanese, and had many L2 speakers using it for trade, administration, and education).\nIn 1945, when Indonesia declared its independence, Indonesian was formally declared the national language, despite being the native language of only about 5% of the population.\nIn contrast, Javanese and Sundanese were the mother tongues of 42–48% and 15% respectively.\nThe combination of [nationalistic](https://bliptext.com/articles/nationalism), [political](https://bliptext.com/articles/politics), and [practical](https://bliptext.com/articles/pragmatism) concerns ultimately led to the successful adoption of Indonesian as a national language.\nIn 1945, Javanese was easily the most prominent language in Indonesia.\nIt was the native language of nearly half the population, the primary language of politics and [economics](https://bliptext.com/articles/economics), and the language of [courtly](https://bliptext.com/articles/court), [religious](https://bliptext.com/articles/religion), and literary tradition.\nWhat it lacked, however, was the ability to unite the diverse Indonesian population as a whole.\nWith thousands of islands and hundreds of different languages, the newly independent country of Indonesia had to find a national language that could realistically be spoken by the majority of the population and that would not divide the nation by favouring one ethnic group, namely the Javanese, over the others.\nIn 1945, Indonesian was already in widespread use; in fact, it had been for roughly a thousand years.\nOver that long period, Malay, which would later become standardized as Indonesian, was the primary language of [commerce](https://bliptext.com/articles/commerce) and [travel](https://bliptext.com/articles/travel).\nIt was also the language used for the propagation of [Islam](https://bliptext.com/articles/islam) in the 13th to 17th centuries, as well as the language of instruction used by Portuguese and Dutch missionaries attempting to convert the indigenous people to [Christianity](https://bliptext.com/articles/christianity).\nThe combination of these factors meant that the language was already known to some degree by most of the population, and it could be more easily adopted as the national language than perhaps any other.\nMoreover, it was the language of the sultanate of [Brunei](https://bliptext.com/articles/brunei) and of future [Malaysia](https://bliptext.com/articles/malaysia), on which [some Indonesian nationalists had claims](https://bliptext.com/articles/greater-indonesia).\nOver the first 53 years of [Indonesian independence](https://bliptext.com/articles/proclamation-of-indonesian-independence), the country's first two presidents, [Sukarno](https://bliptext.com/articles/sukarno) and [Suharto](https://bliptext.com/articles/suharto) constantly nurtured the sense of national unity embodied by Indonesian, and the language remains an essential component of Indonesian identity.\nThrough a language planning program that made Indonesian the language of [politics](https://bliptext.com/articles/politics), [education](https://bliptext.com/articles/education), and nation-building in general, Indonesian became one of the few success stories of an [indigenous language](https://bliptext.com/articles/indigenous-language) effectively overtaking that of a country's colonisers to become the [de jure](https://bliptext.com/articles/de-jure) and [de facto](https://bliptext.com/articles/de-facto) official language.\nToday, Indonesian continues to function as the language of [national identity](https://bliptext.com/articles/national-identity) as the Congress of Indonesian Youth envisioned, and also serves as the language of education, [literacy](https://bliptext.com/articles/literacy), [modernization](https://bliptext.com/articles/modernization-theory), and [social mobility](https://bliptext.com/articles/social-mobility).\nDespite still being a second language to most Indonesians, it is unquestionably the language of the Indonesian nation as a whole, as it has had unrivalled success as a factor in nation-building and the strengthening of Indonesian identity.\n# [The Youth Pledge was the result of the Second Youth Congress held in Batavia in October 1928. On the last pledge, there was an affirmation of Indonesian language as a unifying language throughout the archipelago. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/MuseumSumpahPemuda-13-IndonesischClubgebouw.jpg]\n\n## Modern and colloquial Indonesian\nIndonesian is spoken as a [mother tongue](https://bliptext.com/articles/mother-tongue) and national language.\nOver 200 million people regularly make use of the national language, with varying degrees of proficiency.\nIn a nation that is home to more than 700 native languages and a vast array of ethnic groups, it plays an important unifying and cross-archipelagic role for the country.\nUse of the national language is abundant in the media, [government](https://bliptext.com/articles/government) bodies, [schools](https://bliptext.com/articles/school), [universities](https://bliptext.com/articles/university), [workplaces](https://bliptext.com/articles/workplace), among members of the upper-class or nobility and also in formal situations, despite the 2010 census showing only 19.94% of over-five-year-olds speak mainly Indonesian at home.\nStandard Indonesian is used in books and newspapers and on television/radio news broadcasts.\nThe standard dialect, however, is rarely used in daily conversations, being confined mostly to formal settings.\nWhile this is a phenomenon common to most languages in the world (for example, spoken English does not always correspond to its written standards), the proximity of spoken Indonesian (in terms of grammar and vocabulary) to its normative form is noticeably low.\nThis is mostly due to Indonesians combining aspects of their own local languages (e.g., [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language), [Sundanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/sundanese-language), and [Balinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/balinese-language)) with Indonesian.\nThis results in various vernacular varieties of Indonesian, the very types that a foreigner is most likely to hear upon arriving in any Indonesian city or town.\nThis phenomenon is amplified by the use of [Indonesian slang](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-slang), particularly in the cities.\nUnlike the relatively uniform standard variety, Vernacular Indonesian exhibits a high degree of geographical variation, though Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian functions as the de facto norm of informal language and is a popular source of influence throughout the archipelago.\nThere is [language shift](https://bliptext.com/articles/language-shift) of [first language](https://bliptext.com/articles/first-language) among Indonesian into Indonesian from other language in Indonesia caused by ethnic diversity than urbanicity.\nThe most common and widely used colloquial Indonesian is heavily influenced by the [Betawi language](https://bliptext.com/articles/betawi-language), a [Malay-based creole](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-trade-and-creole-languages) of [Jakarta](https://bliptext.com/articles/jakarta), amplified by its popularity in Indonesian popular culture in mass media and [Jakarta](https://bliptext.com/articles/jakarta)'s status as the national capital.\nIn informal spoken Indonesian, various words are replaced with those of a less formal nature.\nFor example, tidak (no) is often replaced with the Betawi form nggak or the even simpler gak/ga, while seperti (like, similar to) is often replaced with kayak.\nSangat or amat (very), the term to express intensity, is often replaced with the Javanese-influenced banget.\nAs for pronunciation, the diphthongs ai and au on the end of base words are typically pronounced as and.\nIn informal writing, the spelling of words is modified to reflect the actual pronunciation in a way that can be produced with less effort.\nFor example, capai becomes cape or capek, pakai becomes pake, kalau becomes kalo.\nIn verbs, the prefix me- is often dropped, although an initial nasal consonant is often retained, as when mengangkat becomes ngangkat (the basic word is angkat).\nThe suffixes -kan and -i are often replaced by -in.\nFor example, mencarikan becomes nyariin, menuruti becomes nurutin.\nThe latter grammatical aspect is one often closely related to the Indonesian spoken in Jakarta and its surrounding areas.\n# [Road signs in an airport terminal | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Sukarno///hatta///airport///-///Terminal///-///Jakarta///-///Indonesia.jpg]\n# [Toll gate in Bali | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Kuta///Bali///Indonesia///Tol-Station-Nusa-Dua-01.jpg]\n# [Indonesian language used on a Kopaja bus advertisement | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Jakarta///Indonesia///Bus-stop-Monumen-Nasional-02.jpg]\n\n# Classification and related languages\nMalay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western [Borneo](https://bliptext.com/articles/borneo) stretching to the [Bruneian](https://bliptext.com/articles/brunei) coast.\nA form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent [Malayan languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/malayan-languages).\nIts ancestor, [Proto-Malayo-Polynesian](https://bliptext.com/articles/proto-malayo-polynesian), a descendant of the [Proto-Austronesian language](https://bliptext.com/articles/proto-austronesian-language), began to break up by at least 2000 BCE, possibly as a result of the southward expansion of [Austronesian peoples](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-peoples) into [Maritime Southeast Asia](https://bliptext.com/articles/maritime-southeast-asia) from the island of [Taiwan](https://bliptext.com/articles/taiwan).\nIndonesian, which originated from Malay, is a member of the [Austronesian](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-languages) family of languages, which includes languages from [Southeast Asia](https://bliptext.com/articles/southeast-asia), the [Pacific Ocean](https://bliptext.com/articles/pacific-ocean) and [Madagascar](https://bliptext.com/articles/madagascar), with a smaller number in continental [Asia](https://bliptext.com/articles/asia).\nIt has a degree of [mutual intelligibility](https://bliptext.com/articles/mutual-intelligibility) with the Malaysian standard of Malay, which is officially known there as bahasa Malaysia, despite the numerous lexical differences.\nHowever, vernacular varieties spoken in Indonesia and Malaysia share limited intelligibility, which is evidenced by the fact that Malaysians have difficulties understanding Indonesian [sinetron (soap opera)](https://bliptext.com/articles/soap-opera) aired on Malaysia TV stations, and vice versa.\n[Malagasy](https://bliptext.com/articles/malagasy-language), a geographic outlier spoken in [Madagascar](https://bliptext.com/articles/madagascar) in the [Indian Ocean](https://bliptext.com/articles/indian-ocean); the Philippines national language, [Filipino](https://bliptext.com/articles/filipino-language); [Formosan](https://bliptext.com/articles/formosan-language) in Taiwan's aboriginal population; and the native [Māori language](https://bliptext.com/articles/m-ori-language) of New Zealand are also members of this language family.\nAlthough each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking.\nMany roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, [Proto-Austronesian language](https://bliptext.com/articles/proto-austronesian-language).\nThere are many [cognates](https://bliptext.com/articles/cognate) found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals.\nNumbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.\nThere are more than 700 local languages in Indonesian islands, such as [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language), [Sundanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/sundanese-language), etc. While Malay as the source of Indonesian is the mother tongue of ethnic Malay who lives along the east coast of Sumatra, in the Riau Archipelago, and on the south and west coast of Kalimantan (Borneo).\nThere are several areas, such as Jakarta, Manado, Lesser Sunda islands, and Mollucas which has Malay-based trade languages.\nThus, a large proportion of Indonesian, at least, use two language daily, those are Indonesian and local languages.\nWhen two languages are used by the same people in this way, they are likely to influence each other.\nAside from local languages, [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) made the highest contribution to the Indonesian vocabulary, due to the [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) [colonization](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-east-indies) over three centuries, from the 16th century until the mid-20th century.\n[Asian languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/languages-of-asia) also influenced the language, with [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language) influencing Indonesian during the 15th and 16th centuries due to the [spice trade](https://bliptext.com/articles/spice-trade); [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit-language), [Tamil](https://bliptext.com/articles/tamil-language), [Prakrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/prakrit-language) and [Hindi](https://bliptext.com/articles/hindi-language) contributing during the flourishing of [Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms](https://bliptext.com/articles/history-of-indonesia) from the 2nd to the 14th century; followed by [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic) after the [spread of Islam](https://bliptext.com/articles/spread-of-islam-in-indonesia) in the archipelago in the 13th century.\nLoanwords from [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language) were mainly connected with articles that the early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia.\nIndonesian also receives many [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language) words as a result of [globalization](https://bliptext.com/articles/globalization) and [modernization](https://bliptext.com/articles/modernization), especially since the 1990s, as far as the [Internet's emergence and development](https://bliptext.com/articles/history-of-internet) until the present day.\nSome Indonesian words correspond to Malay loanwords in English, among them the common words orangutan, gong, bamboo, rattan, sarong, and the less common words such as paddy, sago and kapok, all of which were inherited in Indonesian from Malay but borrowed from Malay in English.\nThe phrase \"to run amok\" comes from the Malay verb amuk (to run out of control, to rage).\nIndonesian is neither a [pidgin](https://bliptext.com/articles/pidgin-language) nor a [creole](https://bliptext.com/articles/creole-language) since its characteristics do not meet any of the criteria for either.\nIt is believed that the Indonesian language was one of the means to achieve independence, but it is opened to receive vocabulary from other foreign languages aside from Malay that it has made contact with since the colonialism era, such as Dutch, English and Arabic among others, as the [loan words](https://bliptext.com/articles/loan-words) keep increasing each year.\n\n# Geographical distribution\nIn 2020, Indonesian had 71.9 million [native speakers](https://bliptext.com/articles/native-speaker) and 176.5 million [second-language](https://bliptext.com/articles/second-language) speakers, who speak it alongside their [local mother tongue](https://bliptext.com/articles/languages-of-indonesia), giving a total number of speakers in Indonesia of 248.5 million.\nIt is common as a first language in urban areas, and as a second language by those residing in more rural parts of Indonesia.\nThe [VOA](https://bliptext.com/articles/voa) and [BBC](https://bliptext.com/articles/bbc) use Indonesian as their standard for broadcasting in Malay.\nIn [Australia](https://bliptext.com/articles/australia), Indonesian is one of three Asian target languages, together with [Japanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/japanese-language) and [Mandarin](https://bliptext.com/articles/standard-chinese), taught in some schools as part of the [Languages Other Than English](https://bliptext.com/articles/languages-other-than-english) programme.\nIndonesian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1950s.\nIn [East Timor](https://bliptext.com/articles/east-timor), which was occupied by Indonesia between 1975 and 1999, Indonesian is recognized by the constitution as one of the two working languages (the other being [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language)), alongside the official languages of [Tetum](https://bliptext.com/articles/tetum-language) and [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language).\nIt is understood by the Malay people of Australia's [Cocos Keeling Islands](https://bliptext.com/articles/cocos-keeling-islands) in the [Indian Ocean](https://bliptext.com/articles/indian-ocean), also in some parts of the [Sulu area](https://bliptext.com/articles/sulu) of the southern [Philippines](https://bliptext.com/articles/philippines) and traces of it are to be found among people of Malay descent in [Sri Lanka](https://bliptext.com/articles/sri-lanka), [South Africa](https://bliptext.com/articles/south-africa), and other places.\n\n## Indonesian as a foreign language\nIndonesian is taught as a foreign language in schools, universities and institutions around the world, especially in [Australia](https://bliptext.com/articles/australia), the [Netherlands](https://bliptext.com/articles/netherlands), [Japan](https://bliptext.com/articles/japan), [South Korea](https://bliptext.com/articles/south-korea), [Timor-Leste](https://bliptext.com/articles/east-timor), [Vietnam](https://bliptext.com/articles/vietnam), [Taiwan](https://bliptext.com/articles/taiwan), the [United States](https://bliptext.com/articles/united-states), and the [United Kingdom](https://bliptext.com/articles/united-kingdom).\n\n# Official status\n[Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia)n is the [official language](https://bliptext.com/articles/official-language) of [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia), and its use is encouraged throughout the [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia)n archipelago.\nIt is regulated in Chapter XV, [1945 Constitution of Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/constitution-of-indonesia) about the flag, official language, coat of arms, and national anthem of Indonesia.\nAlso, in Chapter III, Section 25 to 45, Government regulation No. 24/ 2009 mentions explicitly the status of the Indonesian language.\n\"The national language is Indonesian.\"\nIndonesian functions as a symbol of national identity and pride, and is a lingua franca among the diverse [ethnic groups in Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethnic-groups-in-indonesia) and the speakers of vernacular Malay dialects and Malay creoles.\nThe Indonesian language serves as the national and official language, the language of education, communication, transaction and trade documentation, the development of national culture, science, technology, and mass media.\nIt also serves as a vehicle of communication among the provinces and different regional cultures in the country.\nAccording to Indonesian law, the Indonesian language was proclaimed as the unifying language during the [Youth Pledge](https://bliptext.com/articles/youth-pledge) on 28 October 1928 and developed further to accommodate the dynamics of Indonesian civilization.\nAs mentioned previously, the language was based on Riau Malay, though linguists note that this is not the local dialect of Riau, but the Malaccan dialect that was used in the [Riau court](https://bliptext.com/articles/riau-lingga-sultanate).\nSince its conception in 1928 and its official recognition in the 1945 Constitution, the Indonesian language has been loaded with a nationalist political agenda to unify Indonesia (former [Dutch East Indies](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-east-indies)).\nThis status has made it relatively open to accommodate influences from other Indonesian ethnic languages, most notably Javanese as the majority ethnic group, and [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) as the previous coloniser.\nCompared to the indigenous dialects of [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language) spoken in Sumatra and [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language) peninsula or the normative [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language)sian standard, the Indonesian language differs profoundly by a large number of [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language) loanwords incorporated into its already-rich vocabulary.\nAs a result, Indonesian has more extensive sources of [loanwords](https://bliptext.com/articles/list-of-loan-words-in-indonesian), compared to Malaysian Malay.\nThe disparate evolution of Indonesian and Malaysian has led to a rift between the two standardized varieties.\nThis has been based more upon political nuance and the history of their standardization than cultural reasons, and as a result, there are asymmetrical views regarding each other's variety among Malaysians and Indonesians.\nMalaysians tend to assert that Malaysian and Indonesian are merely different normative varieties of the same language, while Indonesians tend to treat them as separate, albeit closely related, languages.\nConsequently, Indonesians feel little need to harmonise their language with Malaysia and Brunei, whereas Malaysians are keener to coordinate the evolution of the language with Indonesians, although the 1972 [Indonesian alphabet reform](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-spelling-system) was seen mainly as a concession of Dutch-based Indonesian to the English-based spelling of Malaysian.\nIn November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognised as one of the official languages of the [UNESCO](https://bliptext.com/articles/unesco) General Conference.\nCurrently there are 10 official languages of the UNESCO General Conference, consisting of the six [United Nations](https://bliptext.com/articles/united-nations) languages, namely [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language), [French](https://bliptext.com/articles/french-language), [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic), [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language), [Russian](https://bliptext.com/articles/russian-language), and [Spanish](https://bliptext.com/articles/spanish-language), as well as four other languages of UNESCO member countries, namely [Hindi](https://bliptext.com/articles/hindi), [Italian](https://bliptext.com/articles/italian-language), [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language), and Indonesian.\n# [Indonesian is also the language of Indonesian mass media, such as magazines. Printed and broadcast mass media are encouraged to use standard Indonesian, although more relaxed popular slang often prevails. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Indonesian///magazines///Jakarta.JPG]\n# [Indonesian is used in schools. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Ondel2diSMPN227.jpg]\n\n# Official policy\nAs regulated by Indonesian state law UU No 24/2009, other than state official speeches and documents between or issued to Indonesian government, Indonesian language is required by law to be used in:\nHowever, other languages may be used in dual-language setting to accompany but not to replace Indonesian language in: agreements, information regarding goods / services, scientific papers, information through mass media, geographical names, public signs, road signs, public facilities, banners, and other information of public services in public area.\nWhile there are no sanctions of the uses of other languages, in Indonesian court's point of view, any agreements made in Indonesia but not drafted in Indonesian language, is null and void.\nIn any different interpretations in dual-language agreements setting, Indonesian language shall prevail.\n\n# Phonology\n\n## Vowels\nIndonesian has six vowel phonemes as shown in the table below.\nIn standard Indonesian orthography, the [Latin alphabet](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin-alphabet) is used, and five vowels are distinguished: a, i, u, e, o.\nIn materials for learners, the mid-front vowel /e/ is sometimes represented with a diacritic as ⟨é⟩ to distinguish it from the mid-central vowel ⟨ê⟩ /ə/.\nSince 2015, the auxiliary graphemes ⟨é⟩ and ⟨è⟩ are used respectively for phonetic [] and [] in Indonesian, while Standard Malay has rendered both of them as ⟨é⟩.\nThe phonetic realization of the mid vowels // and // ranges from close-mid (/) to open-mid (/) [allophones](https://bliptext.com/articles/allophone).\nSome analyses set up a system which treats the open-mid vowels and as distinct phonemes.\nPoedjosoedarmo argued the split of the front mid vowels in Indonesian is due to [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language) influence which exhibits a difference between ⟨i⟩ [], ⟨é⟩ [] and è [].\nAnother example of Javanese influence in Indonesian is the split of back mid vowels into two allophones of [] and [].\nThese splits (and loanwords) increase instances of [doublets](https://bliptext.com/articles/doublet-linguistics) in Indonesian, such as ⟨satai⟩ and ⟨saté⟩.\nJavanese words adopted into Indonesian have greatly increased the frequency of Indonesian ⟨é⟩ and ⟨o⟩.\nIn traditional Malay, high vowels (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) could not appear in a final syllable if a mid-vowel (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) appeared in the previous syllable, and conversely, mid-vowels (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) could not appear in the final syllable if a high vowel (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) appeared in the previous syllable.\nTraditional Malay does not allow the mid-central schwa vowel to occur in consonant open or closed word-final syllables.\nThe schwa vowel was introduced in closed syllables under the influence of Javanese and Jakarta Malay, but Dutch borrowings made it more acceptable.\nAlthough Alisjahbana argued against it, insisting on writing ⟨a⟩ instead of an ⟨ê⟩ in final syllables such as koda (vs kodə 'code') and nasionalisma (vs nasionalismə 'nationalism'), he was unsuccessful.\nThis spelling convention was instead survived in [Balinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/balinese-language) orthography.\n\n### Diphthongs\nIndonesian has four [diphthong](https://bliptext.com/articles/diphthong) phonemes only in open syllables.\nThey are:\nSome analyses assume that these diphthongs are actually a monophthong followed by an approximant, so ⟨ai⟩ represents, ⟨au⟩ represents , and ⟨oi⟩ represents.\nOn this basis, there are no phonological diphthongs in Indonesian.\nDiphthongs are differentiated from two vowels in two syllables, such as:\n\n## Consonants\nThe consonants of Indonesian are shown above.\nNon-native consonants that only occur in borrowed words, principally from Arabic and English, are shown in parentheses.\nSome analyses list 19 \"primary consonants\" for Indonesian as the 18 symbols that are not in parentheses in the table as well as the glottal stop.\nThe secondary consonants /f/, /v/, /z/, /ʃ/ and /x/ only appear in loanwords.\nSome speakers pronounce /v/ in loanwords as [v], otherwise it is [f].\nLikewise, /x/ may be replaced with [h] or [k] by some speakers.\n/ʃ/ is sometimes replaced with /s/, which was traditionally used as a substitute for /ʃ/ in older borrowings from [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit), and /f/ is rarely replaced, though /p/ was substituted for /f/ in older borrowings such as kopi \"coffee\" from [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) koffie.\n/z/ may occasionally be replaced with /s/ or /d͡ʒ/.\n[z] can also be an allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants.\nAccording to some analyses, postalveolar affricates and are instead palatals and in Indonesian.\nThe consonants in Indonesian are influenced by other important languages in Indonesian history.\nThe influences included schwa in final closed syllable (e.g. Indonesian pəcəl vs Malay pəcal), initial homorganic nasal stop clusters of ⟨mb⟩, ⟨nd⟩, and ⟨nj⟩ (e.g. Indonesian mbolos 'to malinger'), the consonant-semivowel clusters (e.g. Indonesian pria vs Malay pəria 'male'), introduction of consonant clusters ⟨-ry-⟩ and ⟨-ly-⟩ (e.g. Indonesian gərilya vs Malay gərila 'guerrilla'), increased usage of initial ⟨w-⟩ (e.g. warta and bərita 'news') and intervocalic ⟨w-⟩, and increase of initial and post-consonant ⟨y⟩ [j].\nThese changes resulted from influences of local languages in Indonesia, such as Balinese, Madurese, Sundanese and especially Javanese, and foreign languages such as Arabic and Dutch.\n**Orthographic note**:\nThe sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:\n\n## Stress\nIndonesian has light [stress](https://bliptext.com/articles/stress-linguistics) that falls on either the final or [penultimate syllable](https://bliptext.com/articles/penult), depending on regional variations as well as the presence of the schwa in a word.\nIt is generally the penultimate syllable that is stressed, unless its vowel is a schwa.\nIf the penult has a schwa, then stress usually moves to the final syllable.\nHowever, there is some disagreement among linguists over whether stress is phonemic (unpredictable), with some analyses suggesting that there is no underlying stress in Indonesian.\n\n## Rhythm\nThe classification of languages based on rhythm can be problematic.\nNevertheless, acoustic measurements suggest that Indonesian has more syllable-based rhythm than British English, even though doubts remain about whether the syllable is the appropriate unit for the study of Malay prosody.\n\n# Grammar\nWord order in Indonesian is generally [subject-verb-object](https://bliptext.com/articles/subject-verb-object) (SVO), similar to that of most modern [European languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/languages-of-europe) as well as English.\nHowever, considerable flexibility in word ordering exists, in contrast with languages such as [Japanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/japanese-language) or [Korean](https://bliptext.com/articles/korean-language), for instance, which always end clauses with verbs.\nIndonesian, while allowing for relatively flexible word orderings, does not mark for [grammatical case](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-case), nor does it make use of [grammatical gender](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-gender).\n\n## Affixes\nIndonesian words are composed of a root or a root plus derivational affixes.\nThe root is the primary lexical unit of a word and is usually bisyllabic, of the shape CV(C)CV(C).\nAffixes are \"glued\" onto roots (which are either nouns or verbs) to alter or expand the primary meaning associated with a given root, effectively generating new words, for example, masak (to cook) may become memasak (cooking), memasakkan (cook for), dimasak (be cooked), pemasak (a cook), masakan (a meal, cookery), termasak (accidentally cooked).\nThere are four types of affixes: [prefixes](https://bliptext.com/articles/prefixes) (awalan), [suffixes](https://bliptext.com/articles/suffixes) (akhiran), [circumfixes](https://bliptext.com/articles/circumfixes) (apitan) and [infixes](https://bliptext.com/articles/infixes) (sisipan).\nAffixes are categorized into noun, verb, and adjective affixes.\nMany initial consonants alternate in the presence of prefixes: sapu (to sweep) becomes menyapu (sweeps/sweeping); panggil (to call) becomes memanggil (calls/calling), tapis (to sieve) becomes menapis (sieves).\nOther examples of the use of [affixes](https://bliptext.com/articles/affix) to change the meaning of a word can be seen with the word ajar (to teach):\n-Kan and -i both increase the valency of verbs, but -i should be used \"if [the verb] is directly followed by an animate object.\"\n\n### Noun affixes\nNoun affixes are affixes that form nouns upon addition to root words.\nThe following are examples of noun affixes:\nThe prefix per- drops its r before r, l and frequently before p, t, k. In some words it is peng-; though formally distinct, these are treated as variants of the same prefix in Indonesian grammar books.\n\n### Verb affixes\nSimilarly, verb affixes in Indonesian are attached to root words to form verbs.\nIn Indonesian, there are:\n\n### Adjective affixes\nAdjective affixes are attached to root words to form adjectives:\nIn addition to these affixes, Indonesian also has a lot of borrowed affixes from other languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic and English.\nFor example, maha-, pasca-, eka-, bi-, anti-, pro- etc.\n\n## Nouns\nCommon derivational affixes for nouns are peng-/per-/juru- (actor, instrument, or someone characterized by the root), -an (collectivity, similarity, object, place, instrument), ke-...-an (abstractions and qualities, collectivities), per-/peng-...-an (abstraction, place, goal or result).\n\n### Gender\nIndonesian does not make use of [grammatical gender](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-[gender](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-gender)), and there are only selected words that use natural [gender](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-gender).\nFor instance, the same word is used for he/him and she/her (dia or ia) or for his and her (dia, ia or -nya).\nNo real distinction is made between \"girlfriend\" and \"boyfriend\", both of which can be referred to as pacar (although more colloquial terms as cewek girl/girlfriend and cowok boy/boyfriend can also be found).\nA majority of Indonesian words that refer to people generally have a form that does not distinguish between the natural genders.\nHowever, unlike English, distinction is made between older or younger.\nThere are some words that have gender: for instance, putri means \"daughter\" while putra means \"son\"; pramugara means \"male flight attendant\" while pramugari means \"female flight attendant\".\nAnother example is olahragawan, which means \"sportsman\", versus olahragawati, meaning \"sportswoman\".\nOften, words like these (or certain suffixes such as \"-a\" and \"-i\" or \"-wan\" and \"wati\") are absorbed from other languages (in these cases, from [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit)).\nIn some regions of Indonesia such as Sumatra and Jakarta, abang (a gender-specific term meaning \"older brother\") is commonly used as a form of address for older siblings/males, while kakak (a non-gender specific term meaning \"older sibling\") is often used to mean \"older sister\".\nSimilarly, more direct influences from other languages, such as Javanese and Chinese, have also seen further use of other gendered words in Indonesian.\nFor example: Mas (\"older brother\"), Mbak (\"older sister\"), Koko (\"older brother\") and Cici (\"older sister\").\n\n### Number\nIndonesian grammar does not regularly mark [plurals](https://bliptext.com/articles/plural).\nIn Indonesian, to change a singular into a plural one either repeats the word or adds para before it (the latter for living things only); for example, \"students\" can be either murid-murid or para murid.\nPlurals are rarely used in Indonesian, especially in informal parlance.\nReduplication is often mentioned as the formal way to express the plural form of nouns in Indonesian; however, in informal daily discourse, speakers of Indonesian usually use other methods to indicate the concept of something being \"more than one\".\nReduplication may also indicate the conditions of variety and diversity as well, and not simply plurality.\n[Reduplication](https://bliptext.com/articles/reduplication) is commonly used to emphasise plurality; however, reduplication has many other functions.\nFor example, orang-orang means \"(all the) people\", but orang-orangan means \"scarecrow\".\nSimilarly, while hati means \"heart\" or \"liver\", hati-hati is a verb meaning \"to be careful\".\nAlso, not all reduplicated words are inherently plural, such as orang-orangan \"scarecrow/scarecrows\", biri-biri \"a/some sheep\" and kupu-kupu \"butterfly/butterflies\".\nSome reduplication is rhyming rather than exact, as in sayur-mayur \"(all sorts of) vegetables\".\nDistributive affixes derive mass nouns that are effectively plural: pohon \"tree\", pepohonan \"flora, trees\"; rumah \"house\", perumahan \"housing, houses\"; gunung \"mountain\", pegunungan \"mountain range, mountains\".\nQuantity words come before the noun: seribu orang \"a thousand people\", beberapa pegunungan \"a series of mountain ranges\", beberapa kupu-kupu \"some butterflies\".\nPlural in Indonesian serves just to explicitly mention the number of objects in sentence.\nFor example, Ani membeli satu kilo mangga (Ani buys one kilogram of mangoes).\nIn this case, \"mangoes\", which is plural, is not said as mangga-mangga because the plurality is implicit: the amount **a kilogram** means more than one mango rather than one giant mango.\nSo, as it is logically, one does not change the singular into the plural form, because it is not necessary and considered a [pleonasm](https://bliptext.com/articles/pleonasm) (in Indonesian often called pemborosan kata).\n\n## Pronouns\nPersonal pronouns are not a separate part of speech, but a subset of nouns.\nThey are frequently omitted, and there are numerous ways to say \"you\".\nCommonly the person's name, title, title with name, or occupation is used (\"does Johnny want to go?\", \"would Madam like to go?\"); kin terms, including [fictive kinship](https://bliptext.com/articles/fictive-kinship), are extremely common.\nHowever, there are also dedicated personal pronouns, as well as the demonstrative pronouns ini \"this, the\" and itu \"that, the\".\n\n### Personal pronouns\nFrom the perspective of a European language, Indonesian boasts a wide range of different pronouns, especially to refer to the addressee (the so-called second person pronouns).\nThese are used to differentiate several parameters of the person they are referred to, such as the social rank and the relationship between the addressee and the speaker.\nIndonesian also exhibits [pronoun avoidance](https://bliptext.com/articles/pronoun-avoidance), often preferring kinship terms and titles over pronouns, particularly for respectful forms of address.\nThe table below provides an overview of the most commonly and widely used pronouns in the Indonesian language:\nNotable among the personal-pronoun system is a distinction between [two forms of \"we\"](https://bliptext.com/articles/inclusive-and-exclusive-we): kita (you and me, you and us) and kami (us, but not you).\nThe distinction is not always followed in colloquial Indonesian.\nSaya and aku are the two major forms of \"I\".\nSaya is the more formal form, whereas aku is used with family, friends, and between lovers.\nColloquially, gue or gua (derived from Hokkien) is often used.\nHowever, this is only used when talking with close friends, and not used in family context as it is considered not polite.\nSahaya is an old or literary form of saya.\nSa(ha)ya may also be used for \"we\", but in such cases it is usually used with sekalian or semua \"all\"; this form is ambiguous as to whether it corresponds with inclusive kami or exclusive kita.\nLess common are hamba \"slave\", hamba tuan, hamba datuk (all extremely humble), beta (a royal addressing oneselves), patik (a commoner addressing a royal), kami (royal or editorial \"we\"), kita, təman, and kawan.\nThere are three common forms of \"you\", Anda (polite), kamu (familiar), and kalian \"all\" (commonly used as a plural form of you, slightly informal).\nAnda is used with strangers, recent acquaintances, in advertisements, in business, and when you wish to show distance, while kamu is used in situations where the speaker would use aku for \"I\".\nColloquially, lu (derived from Hokkien) is often used among close friends, just like how gue or gua is used when referring to \"I\".\nAnda sekalian is polite plural.\nParticularly in conversation, respectful titles like Bapak/Pak \"father\" (used for any older male), Ibu/Bu \"mother\" (any older woman), and tuan \"sir\" are often used instead of pronouns.\nEngkau (əngkau), commonly shortened to kau.\nThe common word for \"s/he\" and \"they\" is ia, which has the object and emphatic/focused form dia.\nBəliau \"his/her Honour\" is respectful.\nAs with \"you\", names and kin terms are extremely common.\nMereka \"someone\", mereka itu, or orang itu \"those people\" are used for \"they\".\nThere are a large number of other words for \"I\" and \"you\", many regional, dialectical, or borrowed from local languages.\nSaudara \"you\" (male) and saudari (female) (plural saudara-saudara or saudari-saudari) show utmost respect.\nDaku \"I\" and dikau \"you\" are poetic or romantic.\nIndonesian [gua](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-slang-language) \"I\" (from [Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien) ) and [lu](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-slang-language) \"you\" are slang and extremely informal.\nThe pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Indonesian.\n\n### Possessive pronouns\nAku, kamu, engkau, and ia have short possessive [enclitic](https://bliptext.com/articles/enclitic) forms.\nAll others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic dia: meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia \"my table, our table, your table, his/her table\".\nThere are also [proclitic](https://bliptext.com/articles/proclitic) forms of aku, ku- and kau-.\nThese are used when there is no emphasis on the pronoun:\nHere ku-verb is used for a general report, aku verb is used for a factual statement, and emphatic aku-lah meng-verb (≈ \"I am the one who...\") for focus on the pronoun.\nThe suffix -nya is a special case: it can be also used to mark [definiteness](https://bliptext.com/articles/definiteness), or to link two nouns in possession ([his genitive](https://bliptext.com/articles/his-genitive)).\nIt is also even extended to pronouns and names.\nHowever, this usage has been occasionally criticized.\n\n### Demonstrative pronouns\nThere are two [demonstrative pronouns](https://bliptext.com/articles/demonstrative-pronoun) in Indonesian.\nIni \"this, these\" is used for a noun which is generally near to the speaker.\nItu \"that, those\" is used for a noun which is generally far from the speaker.\nEither may sometimes be equivalent to English \"the\".\nThere is no difference between singular and plural.\nHowever, plural can be indicated through duplication of a noun followed by a ini or itu.\nThe word yang \"which\" is often placed before demonstrative pronouns to give emphasis and a sense of certainty, particularly when making references or enquiries about something/ someone, like English \"this one\" or \"that one\".\n\n## Verbs\nVerbs are not [inflected](https://bliptext.com/articles/inflected-language) for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as \"yesterday\") or by other tense indicators, such as sudah \"already\" and belum \"not yet\".\nOn the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and to denote [voice](https://bliptext.com/articles/voice-grammar) or intentional and accidental [moods](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-mood).\nSome of these affixes are ignored in colloquial speech.\nExamples of these are the prefixes di- ([patient focus](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-alignment), traditionally called \"passive voice\", with OVA word order in the third person, and OAV in the first or second persons), meng- ([agent focus](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-alignment), traditionally called \"active voice\", with AVO word order), memper- and diper- ([causative](https://bliptext.com/articles/causative), agent and [patient focus](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-alignment)), ber- ([stative](https://bliptext.com/articles/stative-verb) or habitual; intransitive VS order), and ter- (agentless actions, such as those which are involuntary, sudden, [stative](https://bliptext.com/articles/stative-verb) or accidental, for VA = VO order); the suffixes -kan ([causative](https://bliptext.com/articles/causative) or [benefactive](https://bliptext.com/articles/benefactive)) and -i (locative, repetitive, or exhaustive); and the circumfixes ber-...-an ([plural subject, diffuse action](https://bliptext.com/articles/pluractionality)) and ke-...-an (unintentional or potential action or state).\nForms in ter- and ke-...-an are often equivalent to adjectives in English.\n\n### Negation\nFour words are used for negation in Indonesian, namely tidak, bukan, jangan, and belum.\nFor example:\n\n### Prohibition\nFor negating imperatives or advising against certain actions in Indonesian, the word jangan (do not) is used before the verb.\nFor example,\n\n## Adjectives\nThere are grammatical adjectives in Indonesian.\n[Stative verbs](https://bliptext.com/articles/stative-verb) are often used for this purpose as well.\nAdjectives are always placed after the noun that they modify.\nTo say that something \"is\" an adjective, the determiners \"itu\" and \"ini\" (\"that\" and \"this\") are often used.\nFor example, in the sentence \"anjing itu galak\", the use of \"itu\" gives a meaning of \"the/that dog is ferocious\", while \"anjing ini galak\", gives a meaning of \"this dog is ferocious\".\nHowever, if \"itu\" or \"ini\" were not to be used, then \"anjing galak\" would only mean \"ferocious dog\", a plain adjective without any stative implications.\nThe all-purpose determiner, \"yang\", is also often used before adjectives, hence \"anjing yang galak\" also means \"ferocious dog\" or more literally \"dog which is ferocious\"; \"yang\" will often be used for clarity.\nHence, in a sentence such as \"saya didekati oleh anjing galak\" which means \"I was approached by a ferocious dog\", the use of the adjective \"galak\" is not stative at all.\nOften the \"ber-\" intransitive verb prefix, or the \"ter-\" stative prefix is used to express the meaning of \"to be...\".\nFor example, \"beda\" means \"different\", hence \"berbeda\" means \"to be different\"; \"awan\" means \"cloud\", hence \"berawan\" means \"cloudy\".\nUsing the \"ter-\" prefix, implies a state of being.\nFor example, \"buka\" means \"open\", hence \"terbuka\" means \"is opened\"; \"tutup\" means \"closed/shut\", hence \"tertutup\" means \"is closed/shut\".\n\n## Word order\nAdjectives, [demonstrative](https://bliptext.com/articles/demonstrative) determiners, and [possessive](https://bliptext.com/articles/possessive) determiners follow the noun they modify.\nIndonesian does not have a [grammatical subject](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-subject) in the sense that English does.\nIn intransitive clauses, the noun comes before the verb.\nWhen there is both an [agent](https://bliptext.com/articles/agent-grammar) and an [object](https://bliptext.com/articles/object-grammar), these are separated by the verb (OVA or AVO), with the difference encoded in the voice of the verb.\nOVA, commonly but inaccurately called \"passive\", is the basic and most common word order.\nEither the agent or object or both may be omitted.\nThis is commonly done to accomplish one of two things:\nFor example, a polite shop assistant in a store may avoid the use of pronouns altogether and ask:\nFor example, a friend may enquire as to when you bought your property, to which you may respond:\nUltimately, the choice of voice and therefore word order is a choice between actor and patient and depends quite heavily on the language style and context.\n\n### Emphasis\nWord order is frequently modified for [focus](https://bliptext.com/articles/focus-grammar) or emphasis, with the [focus](https://bliptext.com/articles/focus-grammar)ed word usually placed at the beginning of the clause and followed by a slight pause (a break in [intonation](https://bliptext.com/articles/intonation-linguistics)):\nThe last two are more likely to be encountered in speech than in writing.\n\n## Measure words\nAnother distinguishing feature of Indonesian is its use of [measure words](https://bliptext.com/articles/measure-word), also called [classifiers](https://bliptext.com/articles/classifier-linguistics) (kata penggolong).\nIn this way, it is similar to many other languages of Asia, including [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language), [Japanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/japanese-language), [Vietnamese](https://bliptext.com/articles/vietnamese-language), [Thai](https://bliptext.com/articles/thai-language), [Burmese](https://bliptext.com/articles/burmese-language), and [Bengali](https://bliptext.com/articles/bengali-language).\nMeasure words are also found in English such as two head of cattle or a loaf of bread, where *two cattle and a bread would be ungrammatical.\nThe word satu reduces to se-, as it does in other compounds:\nExample:\nMeasure words are not necessary just to say \"a\": burung \"a bird, birds\".\nUsing se- plus a measure word is closer to English \"one\" or \"a certain\":\n\n# Writing system\nIndonesian is written with the [Latin script](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin-script).\nIt was originally based on the [Dutch spelling](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-spelling) and still bears some similarities to it.\nConsonants are represented in a way similar to [Italian](https://bliptext.com/articles/italian-language), although ⟨c⟩ is always (like English ⟨ch⟩), ⟨g⟩ is always (\"hard\") and ⟨j⟩ represents as it does in English.\nIn addition, ⟨ny⟩ represents the [palatal nasal](https://bliptext.com/articles/palatal-nasal), ⟨ng⟩ is used for the [velar nasal](https://bliptext.com/articles/velar-nasal) (which can occur word-initially), ⟨sy⟩ for (English ⟨sh⟩) and ⟨kh⟩ for the [voiceless velar fricative](https://bliptext.com/articles/voiceless-velar-fricative).\nBoth and are represented with ⟨e⟩.\nSpelling changes in the language that have occurred since Indonesian independence include:\nIntroduced in 1901, the van Ophuijsen system (named from the advisor of the system, Charles Adriaan van Ophuijsen) was the first standardization of romanized spelling.\nIt was most influenced by the then current [Dutch spelling system](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-orthography) and based on the dialect of Malay spoken in Johor.\nIn 1947, the spelling was changed into [Republican Spelling](https://bliptext.com/articles/republican-spelling-system) or Soewandi Spelling (named by at the time Minister of Education, Soewandi).\nThis spelling changed formerly spelled oe into u (however, the spelling influenced other aspects in orthography, for example writing reduplicated words).\nAll of the other changes were a part of the [Perfected Spelling System](https://bliptext.com/articles/perfected-spelling-system), an officially mandated [spelling reform](https://bliptext.com/articles/spelling-reform) in 1972.\nSome of the old spellings (which were derived from [Dutch orthography](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-orthography)) do survive in proper names; for example, the name of a former president of Indonesia is still sometimes written [Soeharto](https://bliptext.com/articles/suharto), and the central Java city of [Yogyakarta](https://bliptext.com/articles/yogyakarta-city) is sometimes written Jogjakarta.\nIn time, the spelling system is further updated and the latest update of Indonesian spelling system issued on 16 August 2022 by Head of Language Development and Fostering Agency decree No 0424/I/BS.00.01/2022.\n\n## Letter names and pronunciations\nThe [Indonesian alphabet](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-alphabet) is exactly the same as in ISO basic Latin alphabet.\nIndonesian follows the letter names of the [Dutch alphabet](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-alphabet).\nIndonesian alphabet has a [phonemic orthography](https://bliptext.com/articles/phonemic-orthography); words are spelled the way they are pronounced, with few exceptions.\nThe letters Q, V and X are rarely encountered, being chiefly used for writing [loanwords](https://bliptext.com/articles/loanword).\nIn addition, there are [digraphs](https://bliptext.com/articles/digraph-orthography) that are not considered separate letters of the alphabet:\n\n# Vocabulary\nAs a modern variety of Malay, Indonesian has been influenced by other languages, including [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language), [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language), [Greek](https://bliptext.com/articles/greek-language) (where the name of the country, Indonesia, comes from), [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic-language), [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language), [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language), [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit-language), [Tamil](https://bliptext.com/articles/tamil-language), [Hindi](https://bliptext.com/articles/hindi-language), and [Persian](https://bliptext.com/articles/persian-language).\nThe vast majority of Indonesian words, however, come from the root lexical stock of Austronesian (including Old Malay).\nThe study of Indonesian etymology and loan words reveals both its historical and social contexts.\nExamples are the early Sanskrit borrowings from the 7th century during the trading era, the borrowings from Arabic and Persian during the time of the establishment of Islam in particular, and those from Dutch during the colonial period.\nLinguistic history and cultural history are clearly linked.\nList of loan words of Indonesian language published by the [Badan Pengembangan Bahasa dan Perbukuan](https://bliptext.com/articles/language-development-and-fostering-agency) (The Language Center) under the [Ministry of Education and Culture](https://bliptext.com/articles/ministry-of-education-indonesia):\nNote: This list only lists foreign languages, thus omitting numerous local languages of Indonesia that have also been major lexical donors, such as Javanese, Sundanese, Betawi, etc.\n\n## Loan words of Sanskrit origin\nThe [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit) influence came from contacts with [India](https://bliptext.com/articles/india) since ancient times.\nThe words were either borrowed directly from India or with the intermediary of the [Old Javanese language](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-javanese-language).\nAlthough [Hinduism](https://bliptext.com/articles/hinduism) and [Buddhism](https://bliptext.com/articles/buddhism) are no longer the major religions of Indonesia, [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit), which was the language vehicle for these religions, is still held in high esteem and is comparable with the status of [Latin](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin) in [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language) and other Western European languages.\nSanskrit is also the main source for [neologisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/neologism), which are usually formed from Sanskrit roots.\nThe loanwords from Sanskrit cover many aspects of [religion](https://bliptext.com/[art](https://bliptext.com/articles/art)icles/religion), [art](https://bliptext.com/articles/art) and everyday life.\nFrom [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit-language) came such words as स्वर्ग surga (heaven), भाषा bahasa (language), काच kaca (glass, mirror), राज- raja (king), मनुष्य manusia (mankind), चिन्ता cinta (love), भूमि bumi (earth), भुवन buana (world), आगम agama (religion), स्त्री Istri (wife/woman), जय Jaya (victory/victorious), पुर Pura (city/temple/place) राक्षस [Raksasa](https://bliptext.com/articles/raksasa) (giant/monster), धर्म [Dharma](https://bliptext.com/articles/dharma) (rule/regulations), मन्त्र [Mantra](https://bliptext.com/articles/mantra) (words/poet/spiritual prayers), क्षत्रिय Satria (warrior/brave/soldier), विजय Wijaya (greatly victorious/great victory), etc. [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit-language) words and sentences are also used in names, titles, and mottos of the Indonesian National Police and Indonesian Armed Forces such as: [Bhayangkara](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-national-police), [Laksamana](https://bliptext.com/articles/laksamana), [Jatayu](https://bliptext.com/articles/jatayu), [Garuda](https://bliptext.com/articles/garuda), [Dharma](https://bliptext.com/articles/dharma)kerta Marga Reksyaka, [Jalesveva Jayamahe](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-navy), [Kartika Eka Paksi](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-army), [Swa Bhuwana Paksa](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-air-force), [Rastra Sewakottama](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-national-police), Yudha Siaga, etc.\nBecause [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit) has long been known in the [Indonesian archipelago](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-archipelago), [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit) loanwords, unlike those from other languages, have entered the basic vocabulary of Indonesian to such an extent that, for many, they are no longer perceived to be foreign.\nTherefore, one could write a short story using mostly Sanskrit-derived words.\nThe short story below consists of approximately 80 words in Indonesian that are all derived from Sanskrit, as well as a few native [function words](https://bliptext.com/articles/function-words) and affixes.\n\n## Loan words of Chinese origin\nThe relationship with China has been going since the 7th century when Chinese merchants traded in some areas of the archipelago such as [Riau](https://bliptext.com/articles/riau), [West Borneo](https://bliptext.com/articles/west-borneo), [East Kalimantan](https://bliptext.com/articles/east-kalimantan), and [North Maluku](https://bliptext.com/articles/north-maluku).\nAs the kingdom of Srivijaya appeared and flourished, China opened diplomatic relations with the kingdom in order to secure trade and seafaring.\nIn 922, Chinese travelers visited [Kahuripan](https://bliptext.com/articles/kahuripan) in [East Java](https://bliptext.com/articles/east-java).\nSince the 11th century, hundreds of thousands of Chinese migrants left [Mainland China](https://bliptext.com/articles/mainland-china) and settled in many parts of Nusantara (now called Indonesia).\nThe [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language) loanwords are usually concerned with cuisine, trade or often just things exclusively [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language).\nWords of Chinese origin (presented here with accompanying [Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien)/ Mandarin pronunciation derivatives as well as [traditional](https://bliptext.com/articles/traditional-characters) and [simplified characters](https://bliptext.com/articles/simplified-characters)) include loteng, (樓/層 = lóu/céng – [upper] floor/ level), mie (麵 > 面 [Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien) mī – noodles), [lumpia](https://bliptext.com/articles/lumpia) (潤餅 ([Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien) = lūn-piáⁿ) – springroll), cawan (茶碗 cháwǎn – teacup), teko (茶壺 > 茶壶 = cháhú [Mandarin], teh-ko [[Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien)] = teapot), 苦力 kuli (= 苦 khu (hard) and 力 li (energy) – coolie) and even the widely used slang terms gua and lu (from the [Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien) 'goa' 我 and 'lu/li' 汝 – meaning 'I/ me' and 'you').\n\n## Loan words of Arabic origin\nMany Arabic words were brought and spread by merchants from [Arab Peninsula](https://bliptext.com/articles/arab-peninsula) like [Arabian](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabian-people), [Persian](https://bliptext.com/articles/persian-people), and from the western part of India, [Gujarat](https://bliptext.com/articles/gujarat) where many Muslims lived.\nAs a result, many Indonesian words come from the Arabic language.\nEspecially since the late 12th century, Old Malay was heavily influenced by the language and produced many great literary works such as [Syair](https://bliptext.com/articles/syair), [Babad](https://bliptext.com/articles/babad), [Hikayat](https://bliptext.com/articles/hikayat), and Suluk.\nThis century is known as The Golden Age of Indonesian Literature.\nMany loanwords from [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic-language) are mainly concerned with religion, in particular with [Islam](https://bliptext.com/articles/islam), and by extension, with greetings such as the word, \"selamat\" (from = health, soundness) means \"safe\" or \"lucky\".\nWords of [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic-language) origin include dunia (from ' = the present world), names of days (except Minggu), such as Sabtu (from ' = Saturday), iklan (آعلان ' = advertisement), kabar (خبر ' = news), Kursi (كرسي ' = a chair), ijazah (إجازة ' = 'permission', certificate of authority, e.g. a school diploma certificate), kitab (كتاب ' = book), tertib (ترتيب ' = order/arrangement) and kamus (قاموس = dictionary).\n[Allah](https://bliptext.com/articles/allah), as is mostly the case for [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/varieties-of-arabic) speakers, this is the word for [God](https://bliptext.com/articles/god) even in [Christian](https://bliptext.com/articles/christianity) [Bible](https://bliptext.com/articles/bible) translations.\nMany early Bible translators, when they came across some unusual [Hebrew](https://bliptext.com/articles/hebrew-language) words or proper names, used the Arabic cognates.\nIn the newer translations this practice is discontinued.\nThey now turn to [Greek](https://bliptext.com/articles/greek-language) names or use the original Hebrew Word.\nFor example, the name [Jesus](https://bliptext.com/articles/jesus) was initially translated as 'Isa, but is now spelt as Yesus.\nSeveral ecclesiastical terms derived from Arabic still exist in Indonesian language.\nIndonesian word for [bishop](https://bliptext.com/articles/bishop) is uskup (from = [bishop](https://bliptext.com/articles/bishop)).\nThis in turn makes the Indonesian term for [archbishop](https://bliptext.com/articles/archbishop) uskup agung (lit. 'great bishop'), which is combining the Arabic word with an Old Javanese word.\nThe term imam (from = leader, prayer leader) is used to translate a Catholic [priest](https://bliptext.com/articles/priest), beside its more common association with an Islamic prayer leader.\nSome Protestant denominations refer to their congregation jemaat (from = group, a community).\nEven the name of the [Bible](https://bliptext.com/articles/bible) in Indonesian translation is Alkitab (from = the book), which literally means \"the Book\".\n\n## Loan words of Portuguese origin\nAlongside [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language), [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language) was the [lingua franca](https://bliptext.com/articles/lingua-franca) for trade throughout the archipelago from the sixteenth century through to the early nineteenth century.\nThe Portuguese were among the first westerners to sail eastwards to the \"[Spice Islands](https://bliptext.com/articles/maluku-islands)\".\nLoanwords from [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language) were mainly connected with articles that the early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia.\nIndonesian words derived from Portuguese include meja (from mesa = table), bangku (from banco = bench), lemari/almari (from armário = closet), boneka (from boneca = doll), jendela (from janela = window), gereja (from igreja = church), misa (from missa = mass), Natal (from Natal = Christmas), Paskah (from Páscoa = Easter), pesta (from festa = party), dansa (from dança = dance), pesiar (from passear = cruise), bendera (from bandeira = flag), sepatu (from sapato = shoes), garpu (from garfo = fork), kemeja (from camisa = shirt), kereta (from carreta = chariot), pompa (from bomba hidráulica = pump), pigura (from figura = picture), roda (from roda = wheel), nona (from dona = young woman), sekolah (from escola = school), lentera (from lanterna = lantern), paderi (from padre = priest), Santo, Santa (from Santo, Santa = Saint), puisi (from poesia = poetry), keju (from queijo = cheese), mentega (from manteiga = butter), serdadu (from soldado = soldier), meski (from mas que = although), kamar (from câmara = room), laguna (from laguna = lagoon), lelang (from leilão = auction), persero (from parceiro = company), markisa (from maracujá = passion fruit), limau (from limão = lemon), kartu (from cartão = card), Inggris (from inglês = English), Sabtu (from sábado = Saturday), Minggu (from domingo = Sunday), etc.\n# [Indonesian word \"Gereja\" (Church) is derived from Portuguese \"Igreja\". The sign reads: \"Gereja & Candi Hati Kudus Tuhan Yesus Ganjuran Keuskupan Agung Semarang\" (The Church and Temple of the Sacred Heart of Jesus Ganjuran Archdiocese of Semarang). | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Front///gate///Ganjuran.jpg]\n\n## Loan words of Dutch origin\nThe former colonial power, the [Netherlands](https://bliptext.com/articles/netherlands), left a sizeable amount of vocabulary that can be seen in words such as polisi (from politie = police), kualitas (from kwaliteit = quality), aktual (from actueel = current), rokok (from roken = smoking cigarettes), korupsi (from corruptie = corruption), kantor (from kantoor = office), resleting (from ritssluiting = zipper), pelopor (from voorloper = frontrunner), persneling (from versnelling = transmission gear), setrum (from stroom = electricity current), maskapai (from maatschappij = company), apotek (from apotheek = pharmacy), handuk (from handdoek = towel), setrika (from strijkijzer = clothes iron), bioskop (from bioscoop = [movie theater](https://bliptext.com/articles/movie-theater)), spanduk (from spandoeken = banner), korsleting (from kortsluiting = short circuit), om (from oom = uncle), tante (from tante = aunt), traktir (from trakteer = treat) and gratis (from gratis = free).\nThese [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) loanwords, and many other non-Italo-Iberian, European language loanwords that came via [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language), cover all aspects of life.\nSome Dutch loanwords, having clusters of several consonants, pose difficulties to speakers of Indonesian.\nThis problem is usually solved by insertion of the [schwa](https://bliptext.com/articles/schwa).\nFor example, Dutch schroef > sekrup (screw (n.)).\nOne scholar argues that 20% of Indonesian words are inspired by the Dutch language.\nBefore the standardization of the language, many Indonesian words follow standard Dutch alphabet and pronunciation such as \"oe\" for vowel \"u\" or \"dj\" for consonant \"j\" [dʒ].\nAs a result, Malay words are written with that orthography such as: passer for the word Pasar or djalan for the word jalan, older Indonesian generation tend to have their name written in such order as well.\n# [The Indonesian word of bioskop is derived from Dutch bioscoop (movie theater). | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/COLLECTIE///TROPENMUSEUM///Glodok///wijk///te///Djakarta///TMnr///10014951.jpg]\n\n## Loan words of English origin\nMany English words were incorporated into Indonesian through [globalization](https://bliptext.com/articles/globalization).\nMany Indonesians, however, mistake words already adopted from Dutch as words borrowed from English.\nIndonesian adopts English words with standardization.\nFor example: aksesori from accessory.\nHowever, there are several words that directly borrowed without standardization that have same meanings in English such as: bus, data, domain, detail, internet, film, golf, lift, monitor, radio, radar, unit, safari, sonar, video, and riil as real.\n\n## Other loan words\nModern Indonesian draws many of its words from foreign sources, there are many [synonyms](https://bliptext.com/articles/synonym).\nFor example, Indonesian has three words for \"book\", i.e. pustaka (from Sanskrit), kitab (from Arabic) and buku (from Dutch boek); however, each has a slightly different meaning.\nA pustaka is often connected with ancient wisdom or sometimes with esoteric knowledge.\nA derived form, perpustakaan means a library.\nA kitab is usually a religious scripture or a book containing moral guidance.\nThe Indonesian words for the [Bible](https://bliptext.com/articles/bible) and [Gospel](https://bliptext.com/articles/gospel) are Alkitab and Injil, both directly derived from Arabic.\nThe book containing the penal code is also called the kitab.\nBuku is the most common word for books.\nThere are direct borrowings from various other languages of the world, such as karaoke (from カラオケ) from [Japanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/japanese-language), and ebi (from えび) which means dried shrimp.\nMany words that originally are adopted through the Dutch language today however often are mistaken as English due to the similarity in the Germanic nature of both languages.\nIn some cases the words are replaced by English language through globalization: although the word arbei still literally means strawberry in Indonesian, today the usage of the word stroberi is more common.\n[Greek](https://bliptext.com/articles/greek-language) words such as demokrasi (from δημοκρατία ), filosofi, filsafat (both from φιλοσοφία ), mitos (from μῦθος ) came through Dutch, Arabic and Portuguese respectively.\nIt is notable that some of the loanwords that exist in both Indonesian and Malaysian languages are different in spelling and pronunciation mainly due to how they derived their origins: Malaysian utilises words that reflect the [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language) usage (as used by its former colonial power, the [British](https://bliptext.com/articles/united-kingdom)), while Indonesian uses a [Latinate](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin) form (e.g. aktiviti (Malaysian) vs. aktivitas (Indonesian), universiti (Malaysian) vs. universitas (Indonesian)).\n\n## Acronyms and portmanteau\nSince the time of the independence of Indonesia, Indonesian has seen a surge of [neologisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/neologism) which are formed as [acronyms](https://bliptext.com/articles/acronym) (less commonly also [initialisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/initialism)) or [blend words](https://bliptext.com/articles/blend-word).\nCommon acronyms are ABRI (, from Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia '[Indonesian National Armed Forces](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-national-armed-forces)'), SIM (, from surat izin mengemudi 'driving licence'), SARA (, from suku, agama, ras, antargolongan 'ethnic group, religion, race, inter-group [matters]', used when referring to the background of intercommunal conflicts), HAM (, from hak asasi manusia 'human rights').\nBlend words/portmanteau are very common in Indonesian, and have become a productive tool of word formation in both formal and colloquial Indonesian.\nExamples from official usage include departments and officeholders (e.g. Menlu < Mentri Luar Negeri 'Foreign Minister', Kapolda < Kepala kepolisian daerah 'Head of Regional Police') or names of provinces and districts (Sulut < Sulawesi Utara 'North Sulawesi', Jabar < Jawa Barat 'West Java'. Other commonly used portmanteau include puskesmas < pusat kesehatan masyarakat 'community health center', sembako < sembilan bahan pokok 'basic commodities' (lit.\n'nine basic commodities').\n\n# Literature\nIndonesia hosts a variety of traditional verbal arts such as [poetry](https://bliptext.com/articles/poetry), [historical narratives](https://bliptext.com/articles/narrative-history), [romances](https://bliptext.com/articles/romance-film), and [drama](https://bliptext.com/articles/drama), which are expressed in local languages, but modern genres are expressed mainly in Indonesian.\nSome of the classic Indonesian stories include [Sitti Nurbaya](https://bliptext.com/articles/sitti-nurbaya) by [Marah Rusli](https://bliptext.com/articles/marah-rusli), [Azab dan Sengsara](https://bliptext.com/articles/azab-dan-sengsara) by [Merari Siregar](https://bliptext.com/articles/merari-siregar), and [Sengsara Membawa Nikmat](https://bliptext.com/articles/sengsara-membawa-nikmat) by [Tulis Sutan Sati](https://bliptext.com/articles/tulis-sutan-sati).\nModern literature like [novels](https://bliptext.com/articles/novel), [short stories](https://bliptext.com/articles/short-story), stage plays, and [free-form poetry](https://bliptext.com/articles/free-verse) has developed since the late years of the 19th century and has produced figures such as [novelist](https://bliptext.com/articles/novelist) [Pramoedya Ananta Toer](https://bliptext.com/articles/pramoedya-ananta-toer), [dramatist](https://bliptext.com/articles/dramatist) [W.S. Rendra](https://bliptext.com/articles/willibrordus-s-rendra), poet [Chairil Anwar](https://bliptext.com/articles/chairil-anwar), and [cinematographer](https://bliptext.com/articles/cinematographer) [Garin Nugroho](https://bliptext.com/articles/garin-nugroho).\nIndonesia's classic novels themselves offer insight into the [local culture](https://bliptext.com/articles/culture-of-indonesia) and traditions and the historical background before and immediately after the country gained independence.\nOne notable example is Shackles, which was written by [Armijn Pane](https://bliptext.com/articles/armijn-pane) in 1940.\nOriginally titled [Belenggu](https://bliptext.com/articles/belenggu), it has been translated into many languages, including [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language) and [German](https://bliptext.com/articles/german-language).\n\n# As speakers of other languages\nOver the past few years, interest in learning Indonesian has grown among non-Indonesians.\nVarious universities have started to offer courses that emphasise the teaching of the language to non-Indonesians.\nIn addition to national universities, private institutions have also started to offer courses, like the Indonesia Australia Language Foundation and the Lembaga Indonesia Amerika.\nAs early as 1988, teachers of the language have expressed the importance of a standardized Bahasa Indonesia bagi Penutur Asing (also called **BIPA**, literally Indonesian Language for Foreign Speaker) materials (mostly books), and this need became more evident during the 4th International Congress on the Teaching of Indonesian to Speakers of Other Languages held in 2001.\nSince 2013, the Indonesian embassy in the Philippines has given basic Indonesian language courses to 16 batches of Filipino students, as well as training to members of the [Armed Forces of the Philippines](https://bliptext.com/articles/armed-forces-of-the-philippines).\nIn an interview, [Department of Education](https://bliptext.com/articles/department-of-education-philippines) Secretary [Armin Luistro](https://bliptext.com/articles/armin-luistro) said that the country's government should promote Indonesian or Malay, which are related to Filipino.\nThus, the possibility of offering it as an optional subject in public schools is being studied.\nThe Indonesian embassy in Washington, D.C., United States, also began offering free Indonesian language courses at the beginner and intermediate level.\n# [BIPA (Bahasa Indonesia untuk Penutur Asing) book, which helps foreigners learn the Indonesian language | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/BIPA///photograph.jpg]\n\n# Words\n\n## Numbers\n# [2013 edition of one thousand Indonesian Rupiah banknote, featuring Indonesian national hero Thomas Matulessy | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/1000///rupiah///bill%2C///2000///series///%282013///date%29%2C///processed%2C///obverse%2Breverse.jpg]\n\n### Cardinal\n\n### Ordinal\n\n## Days and months\n# [Indonesian-language calendar | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Kalender///Indonesia.jpg]\n\n### Days\n\n### Months\n\n## Common phrases\n\n## Example\nThe following texts are excerpts from the official translations of the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights](https://bliptext.com/articles/universal-declaration-of-human-rights) in Indonesian and Malaysian Malay, along with the original declaration in English.\n\n## English-Indonesian dictionaries","current_revision":null,"created_by":"kACnuQmH5k9Nr5VNVEpVeg7XpvUmMctD","created_at":"2025-01-25T18:06:06.652Z","updated_at":"2025-01-25T18:06:06.652Z","search_vector":"'indonesian':1 'languag':2","search_content":" \n**Name:** Indonesian \n**Nativename:** Bahasa Indonesia \n**States:** [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia) \n**Region:** Indonesia (as official language) · Significant language speakers: [Malaysia](https://bliptext.com/articles/malaysia), [East Timor](https://bliptext.com/articles/east-timor), [Singapore](https://bliptext.com/articles/singapore), [Saudi Arabia](https://bliptext.com/articles/saudi-arabia), [Australia](https://bliptext.com/articles/australia), [Taiwan](https://bliptext.com/articles/taiwan), [Netherlands](https://bliptext.com/articles/netherlands), [Japan](https://bliptext.com/articles/japan), [South Korea](https://bliptext.com/articles/south-korea), and [others](https://bliptext.com/articles/overseas-indonesians) \n**Ethnicity:** Over [1,300 Indonesian ethnic groups](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethnic-groups-in-indonesia) \n**Speakers:** [L1 speakers](https://bliptext.com/articles/first-language): million \n**Date:** 2020 census \n**Speakers 2:** [L2 speakers](https://bliptext.com/articles/second-language): million (2020 census) · Total speakers: million (2020 Census) \n**Familycolor:** Austronesian \n**Fam 2:** [Malayo-Polynesian](https://bliptext.com/articles/malayo-polynesian-languages) \n**Fam 3:** [Malayic](https://bliptext.com/articles/malayic-languages) \n**Fam 4:** [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language) \n**Ancestor:** [Old Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-malay) \n**Ancestor 2:** [Classical Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/classical-malay) (Riau Malay) \n**Ancestor 3:** [Pre-Modern Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/pre-modern-malay) ([Netherlands Indies Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-east-indies)/[Balai Pustaka Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/balai-pustaka)) \n**Script:** [Latin](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin-script) ([Indonesian alphabet](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-orthography)) · [Indonesian Braille](https://bliptext.com/articles/grade-1-braille) \n**Nation:** 🇮🇩 [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia) · [UNESCO](https://bliptext.com/articles/undefined) \n**Minority:** [East Timor](https://bliptext.com/articles/undefined) ([Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia)n used as a working language and a trade language with [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia)) \n**Agency:** [Language Development and Fostering Agency](https://bliptext.com/articles/language-development-and-fostering-agency) (Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa) \n**Iso 1:** id \n**Iso 2:** ind \n**Iso 3:** ind \n**Lingua:** 33-AFA-ac \n**Map:** Indonesian Language Map.svg \n**Mapcaption:** {{legend|#000080|Countries of the world where Indonesian is an official, national language}} · {{legend|#00FFFD|Countries where Indonesian is a minority language or working language}} \n**Notice:** IPA \n**Sign:** SIBI (Manually Coded Indonesian) \n**Glotto:** indo1316 \n**Glottorefname:** Indonesian \n**Stand 1:** [Standard Indonesian](https://bliptext.com/articles/standard-language) \n**Dia 1:** [Colloquial Indonesian](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-slang) (especially Colloquial Jakarta Indonesian) \n \n\n# \n**[Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia)n** (Bahasa [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia); ) is the [official](https://bliptext.com/articles/official-language) and [national language](https://bliptext.com/articles/national-language) of [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia).\nIt is a [standardized](https://bliptext.com/articles/standard-language) [variety](https://bliptext.com/articles/variety-linguistics) of [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language), an [Austronesian language](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-languages) that has been used as a [lingua franca](https://bliptext.com/articles/lingua-franca) in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries.\nWith over 280 million inhabitants, Indonesia ranks as the [fourth most populous nation](https://bliptext.com/articles/list-of-countries-by-population) globally.\nAccording to the 2020 census, over 97% of Indonesians are fluent in Indonesian, making it the largest language by number of speakers in [Southeast Asia](https://bliptext.com/articles/southeast-asia) and one of the [most widely](https://bliptext.com/articles/list-of-languages-by-total-number-of-speakers) spoken languages in the world.\nIndonesian vocabulary has been influenced by various regional languages such as [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language), [Sundanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/sundanese-language), [Minangkabau](https://bliptext.com/articles/minangkabau-language), [Balinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/balinese-language), [Banjarese](https://bliptext.com/articles/banjar-language), and [Buginese](https://bliptext.com/articles/bugis-language), as well as by foreign languages such as [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic-language), [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language), [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language), and [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language).\nMany borrowed words have been adapted to fit the phonetic and grammatical rules of Indonesian, enriching the language and reflecting Indonesia's diverse linguistic heritage.\nMost Indonesians, aside from speaking the national language, are fluent in at least one of the more than 700 indigenous [local languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/languages-of-indonesia); examples include [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language) and [Sundanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/sundanese-language), which are commonly used at home and within the local community.\nHowever, most formal [education](https://bliptext.com/articles/education) and nearly all national [mass media](https://bliptext.com/articles/mass-media), [governance](https://bliptext.com/articles/governance), [administration](https://bliptext.com/articles/public-administration), and [judiciary](https://bliptext.com/articles/judiciary) and other forms of communication are conducted in Indonesian.\nUnder Indonesian rule from 1976 to 1999, Indonesian was designated as the official language of [Timor Leste](https://bliptext.com/articles/timor-leste).\nIt has the status of a [working language](https://bliptext.com/articles/working-language) under the country's [constitution](https://bliptext.com/articles/constitution-of-east-timor) along with [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language).\nIn November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognized as one of the official languages of the [UNESCO](https://bliptext.com/articles/unesco) General Conference.\nThe term Indonesian is primarily associated with the national standard dialect (bahasa baku).\nHowever, in a looser sense, it also encompasses the various local varieties spoken throughout the Indonesian archipelago.\nStandard Indonesian is confined mostly to formal situations, existing in a [diglossic](https://bliptext.com/articles/diglossia) relationship with vernacular Malay varieties, which are commonly used for daily communication, coexisting with the aforementioned regional languages and with [Malay creoles](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-trade-and-creole-languages); standard Indonesian is spoken in informal speech as a lingua franca between vernacular Malay dialects, [Malay creoles](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-trade-and-creole-languages), and regional languages.\nThe Indonesian name for the language (bahasa Indonesia) is also occasionally used in [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language) and other languages.\nBahasa Indonesia is sometimes improperly reduced to Bahasa, which refers to the Indonesian subject (Bahasa Indonesia) taught in schools, on the assumption that this is the name of the language.\nBut the word bahasa only means language.\nFor example, French language is translated as bahasa Prancis, and the same applies to other languages, such as bahasa Inggris (English), bahasa Jepang (Japanese), bahasa Arab (Arabic), bahasa Italia (Italian), and so on.\nIndonesians generally may not recognize the name Bahasa alone when it refers to their national language.\n# [The Youth Pledge, a pledge made by Indonesian youth on October 28, 1928, defining the identity of the Indonesian nation. On the last pledge, there was an affirmation of Indonesian language as a unifying language throughout the archipelago. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Youthpledge.jpg]\n\n# History\n\n## Early kingdoms era\nStandard Indonesian is a [standard language](https://bliptext.com/articles/standard-language) of \"Riau Malay\", which despite its common name is not based on the vernacular Malay dialects of the [Riau Islands](https://bliptext.com/articles/riau-islands), but rather represents a form of [Classical Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/classical-malay) as used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in the [Riau-Lingga Sultanate](https://bliptext.com/articles/riau-lingga-sultanate).\nClassical Malay had emerged as a literary language in the royal courts along both shores of the [Strait of Malacca](https://bliptext.com/articles/strait-of-malacca), including the [Johor Sultanate](https://bliptext.com/articles/johor-sultanate) and [Malacca Sultanate](https://bliptext.com/articles/malacca-sultanate).\nOriginally spoken in Northeast [Sumatra](https://bliptext.com/articles/sumatra), Malay has been used as a [lingua franca](https://bliptext.com/articles/lingua-franca) in the Indonesian [archipelago](https://bliptext.com/articles/archipelago) for half a millennium.\nIt might be attributed to its [ancestor](https://bliptext.com/articles/ancestor), the [Old Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-malay) language (which can be traced back to the 7th century).\nThe [Kedukan Bukit Inscription](https://bliptext.com/articles/kedukan-bukit-inscription) is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, the language used by [Srivijayan](https://bliptext.com/articles/srivijayan) empire.\nSince the 7th century, the Old Malay language has been used in [Nusantara (archipelago)](https://bliptext.com/articles/nusantara-archipelago) (Indonesian archipelago), evidenced by Srivijaya inscriptions and by other inscriptions from [coastal](https://bliptext.com/articles/coast) areas of the archipelago, such as [Sojomerto inscription](https://bliptext.com/articles/sojomerto-inscription).\n# [Rencong alphabet, native writing systems found in central and South Sumatra. The text reads (Voorhoeve's spelling): \"haku manangis ma / njaru ka'u ka'u di / saru tijada da / tang [hitu hadik sa]\", which is translated by Voorhoeve as: \"I am weeping, calling you; though called, you do not come\" (in modern Malay \"Aku menangis, menyerukan engkau, kaudiseru, tiada datang [itu adik satu]\"). | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Kerinci///MSS///detail.jpg]\n# [Kedukan Bukit Inscription, written in Pallava script, is the oldest surviving specimen of the Old Malay language. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Prasasti///Kedukan///Bukit///1.jpg]\n\n## Old Malay as lingua franca\n[Trade](https://bliptext.com/articles/trade) contacts carried on by various [ethnic](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethnic-group) peoples at the time were the main [vehicle](https://bliptext.com/articles/vehicle) for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main [communications](https://bliptext.com/articles/communications) medium among the traders.\nUltimately, the Old Malay language became a [lingua franca](https://bliptext.com/articles/lingua-franca) and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago.\nIndonesian (in its standard form) has essentially the same material basis as the [Malaysian](https://bliptext.com/articles/malaysian-language) standard of Malay and is therefore considered to be a variety of the pluricentric Malay language.\nHowever, it does [differ](https://bliptext.com/articles/comparison-of-standard-malay-and-indonesian) from Malaysian Malay in several respects, with [differ](https://bliptext.com/articles/comparison-of-standard-malay-and-indonesian)ences in pronunciation and vocabulary.\nThese differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian.\nIndonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar (lit. 'market Malay'), which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands.\nMalaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been heavily influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax, by English.\nThe question of whether High Malay (Court Malay) or Low Malay (Bazaar Malay) was the true parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate.\nHigh Malay was the official language used in the court of the [Johor Sultanate](https://bliptext.com/articles/johor-sultanate) and continued by the Dutch-administered territory of [Riau-Lingga](https://bliptext.com/articles/riau-lingga), while Low Malay was commonly used in marketplaces and ports of the archipelago.\nSome linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language.\n# [224x224px | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Srivijaya///Empire.svg]\n\n## Colonial era and the birth of Indonesian\nWhen the [Dutch East India Company](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-east-india-company) (VOC) first arrived in the archipelago at the start of the 1600s, the Malay language was a significant trading and political language due to the influence of the [Malaccan Sultanate](https://bliptext.com/articles/malacca-sultanate) and later the [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portugal).\nHowever, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity.\nThe VOC adopted the Malay language as the administrative language of their trading outpost in the east.\nFollowing the [bankruptcy](https://bliptext.com/articles/bankruptcy) of the VOC, the [Batavian Republic](https://bliptext.com/articles/batavian-republic) took control of the [colony](https://bliptext.com/articles/colony) in 1799, and it was only then that education in and promotion of Dutch began in the [colony](https://bliptext.com/articles/colony).\nEven then, Dutch administrators were remarkably reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes.\nDutch thus remained the language of a small elite: in 1940, only 2% of the total population could speak Dutch.\nNevertheless, it did have a significant influence on the development of Malay in the colony: during the colonial era, the language that would be standardized as Indonesian absorbed a large amount of Dutch vocabulary in the form of [loanwords](https://bliptext.com/articles/loanwords).\nThe [nationalist movement](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-national-awakening) that ultimately brought Indonesian to its national language status rejected [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) from the outset.\nHowever, the rapid disappearance of Dutch was a very unusual case compared with other colonized countries, where the colonial language generally has continued to function as the language of politics, [bureaucracy](https://bliptext.com/articles/bureaucracy), education, [technology](https://bliptext.com/articles/technology), and other fields of importance for a significant time after independence.\nThe Indonesian scholar Soenjono Dardjowidjojo even goes so far as to say that when compared to the situation in other Asian countries such as India, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines, \"Indonesian is perhaps the only language that has achieved the status of a national language in its true sense\" since it truly dominates in all spheres of [Indonesian society](https://bliptext.com/articles/culture-of-indonesia).\nThe ease with which Indonesia eliminated the language of its former colonial power can perhaps be explained as much by Dutch [policy](https://bliptext.com/articles/policy) as by Indonesian nationalism.\nIn marked contrast to the [French](https://bliptext.com/articles/france), [Spanish](https://bliptext.com/articles/spain) and Portuguese, who pursued an [assimilation](https://bliptext.com/articles/cultural-assimilation) colonial policy, or even the [British](https://bliptext.com/articles/british-empire), the Dutch did not attempt to spread their language among the indigenous population.\nIn fact, they consciously prevented the language from being spread by refusing to provide education, especially in Dutch, to the native Indonesians so they would not come to see themselves as equals.\nMoreover, the Dutch wished to prevent the Indonesians from elevating their perceived social status by taking on elements of Dutch culture.\nThus, until the 1930s, they maintained a minimalist regime and allowed Malay to spread quickly throughout the archipelago.Dutch dominance at that time covered nearly all aspects, with official forums requiring the use of Dutch, although since the Second Youth Congress (1928) the use of Indonesian as the national language was agreed on as one of the tools in the independence struggle.\nAs of it, [Mohammad Hoesni Thamrin](https://bliptext.com/articles/mohammad-hoesni-thamrin) inveighed actions underestimating Indonesian.\nAfter some criticism and protests, the use of Indonesian was allowed since the Volksraad sessions held in July 1938.\nBy the time they tried to counter the spread of Malay by teaching Dutch to the natives, it was too late, and in 1942, the Japanese conquered Indonesia.\nThe Japanese mandated that all official business be conducted in Indonesian and quickly outlawed the use of the Dutch language.\nThree years later, the Indonesians themselves formally abolished the language and established bahasa Indonesia as the national language of the new nation.\nThe term bahasa Indonesia itself had been proposed by [Mohammad Tabrani](https://bliptext.com/articles/mohammad-tabrani) in 1926, and Tabrani had further proposed the term over calling the language [Malay language](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language) during the First Youth Congress in 1926.\n\"Indonesian language (old VOS spelling): Jang dinamakan 'Bahasa Indonesia' jaitoe bahasa Melajoe jang soenggoehpoen pokoknja berasal dari 'Melajoe Riaoe' akan tetapi jang soedah ditambah, dioebah ataoe dikoerangi menoeroet keperloean zaman dan alam baharoe, hingga bahasa itoe laloe moedah dipakai oleh rakjat diseloeroeh Indonesia; pembaharoean bahasa Melajoe hingga menjadi bahasa Indonesia itoe haroes dilakoekan oleh kaoem ahli jang beralam baharoe, ialah alam kebangsaan Indonesia\nIndonesian (modern EYD spelling):\nYang dinamakan 'Bahasa Indonesia' yaitu bahasa Melayu yang sungguhpun pokoknya berasal dari 'Melayu Riau' akan tetapi yang sudah ditambah, diubah atau dikurangi menurut keperluan zaman dan alam baru, hingga bahasa itu lalu mudah dipakai oleh rakyat di seluruh Indonesia; pembaharuan bahasa Melayu hingga menjadi bahasa Indonesia itu harus dilakukan oleh kaum ahli yang beralam baru, ialah alam kebangsaan Indonesia\nEnglish:\n'What is named as 'Indonesian language' is a true Malay language derived from 'Riau Malay' but which had been added, modified or subscribed according to the requirements of the new age and nature, until it was then used easily by people across Indonesia; the renewal of Malay language until it became Indonesian it had to be done by the experts of the new nature, the national nature of Indonesia'\n— Ki Hajar Dewantara in the Congress of Indonesian Language I 1938, Solo\"\nSeveral years prior to the congress, Swiss linguist, [Renward Brandstetter](https://bliptext.com/articles/renward-brandstetter) wrote [An Introduction to Indonesian Linguistics](https://bliptext.com/articles/an-introduction-to-indonesian-linguistics) in 4 essays from 1910 to 1915.\nThe essays were translated into English in 1916.\nBy \"Indonesia\", he meant [the name of the geographical region](https://bliptext.com/articles/names-of-indonesia), and by \"Indonesian languages\" he meant [Malayo-Polynesian languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/malayo-polynesian-languages) west of New Guinea, because by that time there was still no notion of Indonesian language.\n[Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana](https://bliptext.com/articles/sutan-takdir-alisjahbana) was a great promoter of the use and development of Indonesian and he was greatly exaggerating the decline of Dutch.\nHigher education was still in Dutch and many educated Indonesians were writing and speaking in Dutch in many situations (and were still doing so well after independence was achieved).\nHe believed passionately in the need to develop Indonesian so that it could take its place as a fully adequate national language, able to replace Dutch as a means of entry into modern international culture.\nIn 1933, he began the magazine Pujangga Baru (New Writer — Poedjangga Baroe in the original spelling) with co-editors Amir Hamzah and Armijn Pane.\nThe language of Pujangga Baru came in for criticism from those associated with the more classical School Malay and it was accused of publishing Dutch written with an Indonesian vocabulary.\nAlisjahbana would no doubt have taken the criticism as a demonstration of his success.\nTo him the language of Pujangga Baru pointed the way to the future, to an elaborated, Westernised language able to express all the concepts of the modern world.\nAs an example, among the many innovations they condemned was use of the word bisa instead of dapat for 'can'.\nIn Malay bisa meant only 'poison from an animal's bite' and the increasing use of Javanese bisa in the new meaning they regarded as one of the many threats to the language's purity.\nUnlike more traditional intellectuals, he did not look to Classical Malay and the past.\nFor him, Indonesian was a new concept; a new beginning was needed and he looked to Western civilisation, with its dynamic society of individuals freed from traditional fetters, as his inspiration.\nThe prohibition on use of Dutch led to an expansion of Indonesian language newspapers and pressure on them to increase the language's wordstock.\nThe Japanese agreed to the establishment of the Komisi Bahasa (Language Commission) in October 1942, formally headed by three Japanese but with a number of prominent Indonesian intellectuals playing the major part in its activities.\nSoewandi, later to be Minister of Education and Culture, was appointed secretary, Alisjahbana was appointed an 'expert secretary' and other members included the future president and vice-president, Sukarno and Hatta.\nJournalists, beginning a practice that has continued to the present, did not wait for the Komisi Bahasa to provide new words, but actively participated themselves in coining terms.\nMany of the Komisi Bahasa's terms never found public acceptance and after the Japanese period were replaced by the original Dutch forms, including jantera (Sanskrit for 'wheel'), which temporarily replaced mesin (machine), ketua negara (literally 'chairman of state'), which had replaced presiden (president) and kilang (meaning 'mill'), which had replaced pabrik (factory).\nIn a few cases, however, coinings permanently replaced earlier Dutch terms, including pajak (earlier meaning 'monopoly') instead of belasting (tax) and senam (meaning 'exercise') instead of gimnastik (gymnastics).\nThe Komisi Bahasa is said to have coined more than 7000 terms, although few of these gained common acceptance.\n# [Volksraad session held in July 1938 in Jakarta, where Indonesian was formally used for the first time by Jahja Datoek Kajo | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/COLLECTIE///TROPENMUSEUM///Opening///van///de///Volksraad///door///gouverneur-generaal///Van///Limburg///Stirum///op///18///mei///1918///op///Java///TMnr/// 10001373.jpg]\n# [Propaganda posters from Japanese-occupied Dutch East Indies | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Poster///Propaganda///Jepang.jpg]\n\n## Adoption as the national language\nThe adoption of Indonesian as the country's national language was in contrast to most other post-colonial states.\nNeither the language with the most native speakers (Javanese) nor the language of the former European colonial power (Dutch) was to be adopted.\nInstead, a local language with far fewer native speakers than the most widely spoken local language was chosen (nevertheless, Malay was the second most widely spoken language in the colony after Javanese, and had many L2 speakers using it for trade, administration, and education).\nIn 1945, when Indonesia declared its independence, Indonesian was formally declared the national language, despite being the native language of only about 5% of the population.\nIn contrast, Javanese and Sundanese were the mother tongues of 42–48% and 15% respectively.\nThe combination of [nationalistic](https://bliptext.com/articles/nationalism), [political](https://bliptext.com/articles/politics), and [practical](https://bliptext.com/articles/pragmatism) concerns ultimately led to the successful adoption of Indonesian as a national language.\nIn 1945, Javanese was easily the most prominent language in Indonesia.\nIt was the native language of nearly half the population, the primary language of politics and [economics](https://bliptext.com/articles/economics), and the language of [courtly](https://bliptext.com/articles/court), [religious](https://bliptext.com/articles/religion), and literary tradition.\nWhat it lacked, however, was the ability to unite the diverse Indonesian population as a whole.\nWith thousands of islands and hundreds of different languages, the newly independent country of Indonesia had to find a national language that could realistically be spoken by the majority of the population and that would not divide the nation by favouring one ethnic group, namely the Javanese, over the others.\nIn 1945, Indonesian was already in widespread use; in fact, it had been for roughly a thousand years.\nOver that long period, Malay, which would later become standardized as Indonesian, was the primary language of [commerce](https://bliptext.com/articles/commerce) and [travel](https://bliptext.com/articles/travel).\nIt was also the language used for the propagation of [Islam](https://bliptext.com/articles/islam) in the 13th to 17th centuries, as well as the language of instruction used by Portuguese and Dutch missionaries attempting to convert the indigenous people to [Christianity](https://bliptext.com/articles/christianity).\nThe combination of these factors meant that the language was already known to some degree by most of the population, and it could be more easily adopted as the national language than perhaps any other.\nMoreover, it was the language of the sultanate of [Brunei](https://bliptext.com/articles/brunei) and of future [Malaysia](https://bliptext.com/articles/malaysia), on which [some Indonesian nationalists had claims](https://bliptext.com/articles/greater-indonesia).\nOver the first 53 years of [Indonesian independence](https://bliptext.com/articles/proclamation-of-indonesian-independence), the country's first two presidents, [Sukarno](https://bliptext.com/articles/sukarno) and [Suharto](https://bliptext.com/articles/suharto) constantly nurtured the sense of national unity embodied by Indonesian, and the language remains an essential component of Indonesian identity.\nThrough a language planning program that made Indonesian the language of [politics](https://bliptext.com/articles/politics), [education](https://bliptext.com/articles/education), and nation-building in general, Indonesian became one of the few success stories of an [indigenous language](https://bliptext.com/articles/indigenous-language) effectively overtaking that of a country's colonisers to become the [de jure](https://bliptext.com/articles/de-jure) and [de facto](https://bliptext.com/articles/de-facto) official language.\nToday, Indonesian continues to function as the language of [national identity](https://bliptext.com/articles/national-identity) as the Congress of Indonesian Youth envisioned, and also serves as the language of education, [literacy](https://bliptext.com/articles/literacy), [modernization](https://bliptext.com/articles/modernization-theory), and [social mobility](https://bliptext.com/articles/social-mobility).\nDespite still being a second language to most Indonesians, it is unquestionably the language of the Indonesian nation as a whole, as it has had unrivalled success as a factor in nation-building and the strengthening of Indonesian identity.\n# [The Youth Pledge was the result of the Second Youth Congress held in Batavia in October 1928. On the last pledge, there was an affirmation of Indonesian language as a unifying language throughout the archipelago. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/MuseumSumpahPemuda-13-IndonesischClubgebouw.jpg]\n\n## Modern and colloquial Indonesian\nIndonesian is spoken as a [mother tongue](https://bliptext.com/articles/mother-tongue) and national language.\nOver 200 million people regularly make use of the national language, with varying degrees of proficiency.\nIn a nation that is home to more than 700 native languages and a vast array of ethnic groups, it plays an important unifying and cross-archipelagic role for the country.\nUse of the national language is abundant in the media, [government](https://bliptext.com/articles/government) bodies, [schools](https://bliptext.com/articles/school), [universities](https://bliptext.com/articles/university), [workplaces](https://bliptext.com/articles/workplace), among members of the upper-class or nobility and also in formal situations, despite the 2010 census showing only 19.94% of over-five-year-olds speak mainly Indonesian at home.\nStandard Indonesian is used in books and newspapers and on television/radio news broadcasts.\nThe standard dialect, however, is rarely used in daily conversations, being confined mostly to formal settings.\nWhile this is a phenomenon common to most languages in the world (for example, spoken English does not always correspond to its written standards), the proximity of spoken Indonesian (in terms of grammar and vocabulary) to its normative form is noticeably low.\nThis is mostly due to Indonesians combining aspects of their own local languages (e.g., [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language), [Sundanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/sundanese-language), and [Balinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/balinese-language)) with Indonesian.\nThis results in various vernacular varieties of Indonesian, the very types that a foreigner is most likely to hear upon arriving in any Indonesian city or town.\nThis phenomenon is amplified by the use of [Indonesian slang](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-slang), particularly in the cities.\nUnlike the relatively uniform standard variety, Vernacular Indonesian exhibits a high degree of geographical variation, though Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian functions as the de facto norm of informal language and is a popular source of influence throughout the archipelago.\nThere is [language shift](https://bliptext.com/articles/language-shift) of [first language](https://bliptext.com/articles/first-language) among Indonesian into Indonesian from other language in Indonesia caused by ethnic diversity than urbanicity.\nThe most common and widely used colloquial Indonesian is heavily influenced by the [Betawi language](https://bliptext.com/articles/betawi-language), a [Malay-based creole](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-trade-and-creole-languages) of [Jakarta](https://bliptext.com/articles/jakarta), amplified by its popularity in Indonesian popular culture in mass media and [Jakarta](https://bliptext.com/articles/jakarta)'s status as the national capital.\nIn informal spoken Indonesian, various words are replaced with those of a less formal nature.\nFor example, tidak (no) is often replaced with the Betawi form nggak or the even simpler gak/ga, while seperti (like, similar to) is often replaced with kayak.\nSangat or amat (very), the term to express intensity, is often replaced with the Javanese-influenced banget.\nAs for pronunciation, the diphthongs ai and au on the end of base words are typically pronounced as and.\nIn informal writing, the spelling of words is modified to reflect the actual pronunciation in a way that can be produced with less effort.\nFor example, capai becomes cape or capek, pakai becomes pake, kalau becomes kalo.\nIn verbs, the prefix me- is often dropped, although an initial nasal consonant is often retained, as when mengangkat becomes ngangkat (the basic word is angkat).\nThe suffixes -kan and -i are often replaced by -in.\nFor example, mencarikan becomes nyariin, menuruti becomes nurutin.\nThe latter grammatical aspect is one often closely related to the Indonesian spoken in Jakarta and its surrounding areas.\n# [Road signs in an airport terminal | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Sukarno///hatta///airport///-///Terminal///-///Jakarta///-///Indonesia.jpg]\n# [Toll gate in Bali | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Kuta///Bali///Indonesia///Tol-Station-Nusa-Dua-01.jpg]\n# [Indonesian language used on a Kopaja bus advertisement | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Jakarta///Indonesia///Bus-stop-Monumen-Nasional-02.jpg]\n\n# Classification and related languages\nMalay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western [Borneo](https://bliptext.com/articles/borneo) stretching to the [Bruneian](https://bliptext.com/articles/brunei) coast.\nA form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent [Malayan languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/malayan-languages).\nIts ancestor, [Proto-Malayo-Polynesian](https://bliptext.com/articles/proto-malayo-polynesian), a descendant of the [Proto-Austronesian language](https://bliptext.com/articles/proto-austronesian-language), began to break up by at least 2000 BCE, possibly as a result of the southward expansion of [Austronesian peoples](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-peoples) into [Maritime Southeast Asia](https://bliptext.com/articles/maritime-southeast-asia) from the island of [Taiwan](https://bliptext.com/articles/taiwan).\nIndonesian, which originated from Malay, is a member of the [Austronesian](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-languages) family of languages, which includes languages from [Southeast [Asia](https://bliptext.com/articles/asia)](https://bliptext.com/articles/southeast-asia), the [Pacific Ocean](https://bliptext.com/articles/pacific-ocean) and [Madagascar](https://bliptext.com/articles/madagascar), with a smaller number in continental [Asia](https://bliptext.com/articles/asia).\nIt has a degree of [mutual intelligibility](https://bliptext.com/articles/mutual-intelligibility) with the Malaysian standard of Malay, which is officially known there as bahasa Malaysia, despite the numerous lexical differences.\nHowever, vernacular varieties spoken in Indonesia and Malaysia share limited intelligibility, which is evidenced by the fact that Malaysians have difficulties understanding Indonesian [sinetron (soap opera)](https://bliptext.com/articles/soap-opera) aired on Malaysia TV stations, and vice versa.\n[Malagasy](https://bliptext.com/articles/malagasy-language), a geographic outlier spoken in [Madagascar](https://bliptext.com/articles/madagascar) in the [Indian Ocean](https://bliptext.com/articles/indian-ocean); the Philippines national language, [Filipino](https://bliptext.com/articles/filipino-language); [Formosan](https://bliptext.com/articles/formosan-language) in Taiwan's aboriginal population; and the native [Māori language](https://bliptext.com/articles/m-ori-language) of New Zealand are also members of this language family.\nAlthough each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking.\nMany roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, [Proto-Austronesian language](https://bliptext.com/articles/proto-austronesian-language).\nThere are many [cognates](https://bliptext.com/articles/cognate) found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals.\nNumbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.\nThere are more than 700 local languages in Indonesian islands, such as [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language), [Sundanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/sundanese-language), etc. While Malay as the source of Indonesian is the mother tongue of ethnic Malay who lives along the east coast of Sumatra, in the Riau Archipelago, and on the south and west coast of Kalimantan (Borneo).\nThere are several areas, such as Jakarta, Manado, Lesser Sunda islands, and Mollucas which has Malay-based trade languages.\nThus, a large proportion of Indonesian, at least, use two language daily, those are Indonesian and local languages.\nWhen two languages are used by the same people in this way, they are likely to influence each other.\nAside from local languages, [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) made the highest contribution to the Indonesian vocabulary, due to the [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) [colonization](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-east-indies) over three centuries, from the 16th century until the mid-20th century.\n[Asian languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/languages-of-asia) also influenced the language, with [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language) influencing Indonesian during the 15th and 16th centuries due to the [spice trade](https://bliptext.com/articles/spice-trade); [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit-language), [Tamil](https://bliptext.com/articles/tamil-language), [Prakrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/prakrit-language) and [Hindi](https://bliptext.com/articles/hindi-language) contributing during the flourishing of [Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms](https://bliptext.com/articles/history-of-indonesia) from the 2nd to the 14th century; followed by [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic) after the [spread of Islam](https://bliptext.com/articles/spread-of-islam-in-indonesia) in the archipelago in the 13th century.\nLoanwords from [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language) were mainly connected with articles that the early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia.\nIndonesian also receives many [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language) words as a result of [globalization](https://bliptext.com/articles/globalization) and [modernization](https://bliptext.com/articles/modernization), especially since the 1990s, as far as the [Internet's emergence and development](https://bliptext.com/articles/history-of-internet) until the present day.\nSome Indonesian words correspond to Malay loanwords in English, among them the common words orangutan, gong, bamboo, rattan, sarong, and the less common words such as paddy, sago and kapok, all of which were inherited in Indonesian from Malay but borrowed from Malay in English.\nThe phrase \"to run amok\" comes from the Malay verb amuk (to run out of control, to rage).\nIndonesian is neither a [pidgin](https://bliptext.com/articles/pidgin-language) nor a [creole](https://bliptext.com/articles/creole-language) since its characteristics do not meet any of the criteria for either.\nIt is believed that the Indonesian language was one of the means to achieve independence, but it is opened to receive vocabulary from other foreign languages aside from Malay that it has made contact with since the colonialism era, such as Dutch, English and Arabic among others, as the [loan words](https://bliptext.com/articles/loan-words) keep increasing each year.\n\n# Geographical distribution\nIn 2020, Indonesian had 71.9 million [native speakers](https://bliptext.com/articles/native-speaker) and 176.5 million [second-language](https://bliptext.com/articles/second-language) speakers, who speak it alongside their [local mother tongue](https://bliptext.com/articles/languages-of-indonesia), giving a total number of speakers in Indonesia of 248.5 million.\nIt is common as a first language in urban areas, and as a second language by those residing in more rural parts of Indonesia.\nThe [VOA](https://bliptext.com/articles/voa) and [BBC](https://bliptext.com/articles/bbc) use Indonesian as their standard for broadcasting in Malay.\nIn [Australia](https://bliptext.com/articles/australia), Indonesian is one of three Asian target languages, together with [Japanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/japanese-language) and [Mandarin](https://bliptext.com/articles/standard-chinese), taught in some schools as part of the [Languages Other Than English](https://bliptext.com/articles/languages-other-than-english) programme.\nIndonesian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1950s.\nIn [East Timor](https://bliptext.com/articles/east-timor), which was occupied by Indonesia between 1975 and 1999, Indonesian is recognized by the constitution as one of the two working languages (the other being [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language)), alongside the official languages of [Tetum](https://bliptext.com/articles/tetum-language) and [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language).\nIt is understood by the Malay people of Australia's [Cocos Keeling Islands](https://bliptext.com/articles/cocos-keeling-islands) in the [Indian Ocean](https://bliptext.com/articles/indian-ocean), also in some parts of the [Sulu area](https://bliptext.com/articles/sulu) of the southern [Philippines](https://bliptext.com/articles/philippines) and traces of it are to be found among people of Malay descent in [Sri Lanka](https://bliptext.com/articles/sri-lanka), [South Africa](https://bliptext.com/articles/south-africa), and other places.\n\n## Indonesian as a foreign language\nIndonesian is taught as a foreign language in schools, universities and institutions around the world, especially in [Australia](https://bliptext.com/articles/australia), the [Netherlands](https://bliptext.com/articles/netherlands), [Japan](https://bliptext.com/articles/japan), [South Korea](https://bliptext.com/articles/south-korea), [Timor-Leste](https://bliptext.com/articles/east-timor), [Vietnam](https://bliptext.com/articles/vietnam), [Taiwan](https://bliptext.com/articles/taiwan), the [United States](https://bliptext.com/articles/united-states), and the [United Kingdom](https://bliptext.com/articles/united-kingdom).\n\n# Official status\n[Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia)n is the [official language](https://bliptext.com/articles/official-language) of [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia), and its use is encouraged throughout the [Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesia)n archipelago.\nIt is regulated in Chapter XV, [1945 Constitution of Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/constitution-of-indonesia) about the flag, official language, coat of arms, and national anthem of Indonesia.\nAlso, in Chapter III, Section 25 to 45, Government regulation No. 24/ 2009 mentions explicitly the status of the Indonesian language.\n\"The national language is Indonesian.\"\nIndonesian functions as a symbol of national identity and pride, and is a lingua franca among the diverse [ethnic groups in Indonesia](https://bliptext.com/articles/ethnic-groups-in-indonesia) and the speakers of vernacular Malay dialects and Malay creoles.\nThe Indonesian language serves as the national and official language, the language of education, communication, transaction and trade documentation, the development of national culture, science, technology, and mass media.\nIt also serves as a vehicle of communication among the provinces and different regional cultures in the country.\nAccording to Indonesian law, the Indonesian language was proclaimed as the unifying language during the [Youth Pledge](https://bliptext.com/articles/youth-pledge) on 28 October 1928 and developed further to accommodate the dynamics of Indonesian civilization.\nAs mentioned previously, the language was based on Riau Malay, though linguists note that this is not the local dialect of Riau, but the Malaccan dialect that was used in the [Riau court](https://bliptext.com/articles/riau-lingga-sultanate).\nSince its conception in 1928 and its official recognition in the 1945 Constitution, the Indonesian language has been loaded with a nationalist political agenda to unify Indonesia (former [Dutch East Indies](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-east-indies)).\nThis status has made it relatively open to accommodate influences from other Indonesian ethnic languages, most notably Javanese as the majority ethnic group, and [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) as the previous coloniser.\nCompared to the indigenous dialects of [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language) spoken in Sumatra and [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language) peninsula or the normative [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language)sian standard, the Indonesian language differs profoundly by a large number of [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language) loanwords incorporated into its already-rich vocabulary.\nAs a result, Indonesian has more extensive sources of [loanwords](https://bliptext.com/articles/list-of-loan-words-in-indonesian), compared to Malaysian Malay.\nThe disparate evolution of Indonesian and Malaysian has led to a rift between the two standardized varieties.\nThis has been based more upon political nuance and the history of their standardization than cultural reasons, and as a result, there are asymmetrical views regarding each other's variety among Malaysians and Indonesians.\nMalaysians tend to assert that Malaysian and Indonesian are merely different normative varieties of the same language, while Indonesians tend to treat them as separate, albeit closely related, languages.\nConsequently, Indonesians feel little need to harmonise their language with Malaysia and Brunei, whereas Malaysians are keener to coordinate the evolution of the language with Indonesians, although the 1972 [Indonesian alphabet reform](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-spelling-system) was seen mainly as a concession of Dutch-based Indonesian to the English-based spelling of Malaysian.\nIn November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognised as one of the official languages of the [UNESCO](https://bliptext.com/articles/unesco) General Conference.\nCurrently there are 10 official languages of the UNESCO General Conference, consisting of the six [United Nations](https://bliptext.com/articles/united-nations) languages, namely [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language), [French](https://bliptext.com/articles/french-language), [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic), [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language), [Russian](https://bliptext.com/articles/russian-language), and [Spanish](https://bliptext.com/articles/spanish-language), as well as four other languages of UNESCO member countries, namely [Hindi](https://bliptext.com/articles/hindi), [Italian](https://bliptext.com/articles/italian-language), [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language), and Indonesian.\n# [Indonesian is also the language of Indonesian mass media, such as magazines. Printed and broadcast mass media are encouraged to use standard Indonesian, although more relaxed popular slang often prevails. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/Indonesian///magazines///Jakarta.JPG]\n# [Indonesian is used in schools. | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Ondel2diSMPN227.jpg]\n\n# Official policy\nAs regulated by Indonesian state law UU No 24/2009, other than state official speeches and documents between or issued to Indonesian government, Indonesian language is required by law to be used in:\nHowever, other languages may be used in dual-language setting to accompany but not to replace Indonesian language in: agreements, information regarding goods / services, scientific papers, information through mass media, geographical names, public signs, road signs, public facilities, banners, and other information of public services in public area.\nWhile there are no sanctions of the uses of other languages, in Indonesian court's point of view, any agreements made in Indonesia but not drafted in Indonesian language, is null and void.\nIn any different interpretations in dual-language agreements setting, Indonesian language shall prevail.\n\n# Phonology\n\n## Vowels\nIndonesian has six vowel phonemes as shown in the table below.\nIn standard Indonesian orthography, the [Latin alphabet](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin-alphabet) is used, and five vowels are distinguished: a, i, u, e, o.\nIn materials for learners, the mid-front vowel /e/ is sometimes represented with a diacritic as ⟨é⟩ to distinguish it from the mid-central vowel ⟨ê⟩ /ə/.\nSince 2015, the auxiliary graphemes ⟨é⟩ and ⟨è⟩ are used respectively for phonetic [] and [] in Indonesian, while Standard Malay has rendered both of them as ⟨é⟩.\nThe phonetic realization of the mid vowels // and // ranges from close-mid (/) to open-mid (/) [allophones](https://bliptext.com/articles/allophone).\nSome analyses set up a system which treats the open-mid vowels and as distinct phonemes.\nPoedjosoedarmo argued the split of the front mid vowels in Indonesian is due to [Javanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/javanese-language) influence which exhibits a difference between ⟨i⟩ [], ⟨é⟩ [] and è [].\nAnother example of Javanese influence in Indonesian is the split of back mid vowels into two allophones of [] and [].\nThese splits (and loanwords) increase instances of [doublets](https://bliptext.com/articles/doublet-linguistics) in Indonesian, such as ⟨satai⟩ and ⟨saté⟩.\nJavanese words adopted into Indonesian have greatly increased the frequency of Indonesian ⟨é⟩ and ⟨o⟩.\nIn traditional Malay, high vowels (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) could not appear in a final syllable if a mid-vowel (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) appeared in the previous syllable, and conversely, mid-vowels (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) could not appear in the final syllable if a high vowel (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) appeared in the previous syllable.\nTraditional Malay does not allow the mid-central schwa vowel to occur in consonant open or closed word-final syllables.\nThe schwa vowel was introduced in closed syllables under the influence of Javanese and Jakarta Malay, but Dutch borrowings made it more acceptable.\nAlthough Alisjahbana argued against it, insisting on writing ⟨a⟩ instead of an ⟨ê⟩ in final syllables such as koda (vs kodə 'code') and nasionalisma (vs nasionalismə 'nationalism'), he was unsuccessful.\nThis spelling convention was instead survived in [Balinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/balinese-language) orthography.\n\n### Diphthongs\nIndonesian has four [diphthong](https://bliptext.com/articles/diphthong) phonemes only in open syllables.\nThey are:\nSome analyses assume that these diphthongs are actually a monophthong followed by an approximant, so ⟨ai⟩ represents, ⟨au⟩ represents , and ⟨oi⟩ represents.\nOn this basis, there are no phonological diphthongs in Indonesian.\nDiphthongs are differentiated from two vowels in two syllables, such as:\n\n## Consonants\nThe consonants of Indonesian are shown above.\nNon-native consonants that only occur in borrowed words, principally from Arabic and English, are shown in parentheses.\nSome analyses list 19 \"primary consonants\" for Indonesian as the 18 symbols that are not in parentheses in the table as well as the glottal stop.\nThe secondary consonants /f/, /v/, /z/, /ʃ/ and /x/ only appear in loanwords.\nSome speakers pronounce /v/ in loanwords as [v], otherwise it is [f].\nLikewise, /x/ may be replaced with [h] or [k] by some speakers.\n/ʃ/ is sometimes replaced with /s/, which was traditionally used as a substitute for /ʃ/ in older borrowings from [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit), and /f/ is rarely replaced, though /p/ was substituted for /f/ in older borrowings such as kopi \"coffee\" from [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) koffie.\n/z/ may occasionally be replaced with /s/ or /d͡ʒ/.\n[z] can also be an allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants.\nAccording to some analyses, postalveolar affricates and are instead palatals and in Indonesian.\nThe consonants in Indonesian are influenced by other important languages in Indonesian history.\nThe influences included schwa in final closed syllable (e.g. Indonesian pəcəl vs Malay pəcal), initial homorganic nasal stop clusters of ⟨mb⟩, ⟨nd⟩, and ⟨nj⟩ (e.g. Indonesian mbolos 'to malinger'), the consonant-semivowel clusters (e.g. Indonesian pria vs Malay pəria 'male'), introduction of consonant clusters ⟨-ry-⟩ and ⟨-ly-⟩ (e.g. Indonesian gərilya vs Malay gərila 'guerrilla'), increased usage of initial ⟨w-⟩ (e.g. warta and bərita 'news') and intervocalic ⟨w-⟩, and increase of initial and post-consonant ⟨y⟩ [j].\nThese changes resulted from influences of local languages in Indonesia, such as Balinese, Madurese, Sundanese and especially Javanese, and foreign languages such as Arabic and Dutch.\n**Orthographic note**:\nThe sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:\n\n## Stress\nIndonesian has light [stress](https://bliptext.com/articles/stress-linguistics) that falls on either the final or [penultimate syllable](https://bliptext.com/articles/penult), depending on regional variations as well as the presence of the schwa in a word.\nIt is generally the penultimate syllable that is stressed, unless its vowel is a schwa.\nIf the penult has a schwa, then stress usually moves to the final syllable.\nHowever, there is some disagreement among linguists over whether stress is phonemic (unpredictable), with some analyses suggesting that there is no underlying stress in Indonesian.\n\n## Rhythm\nThe classification of languages based on rhythm can be problematic.\nNevertheless, acoustic measurements suggest that Indonesian has more syllable-based rhythm than British English, even though doubts remain about whether the syllable is the appropriate unit for the study of Malay prosody.\n\n# Grammar\nWord order in Indonesian is generally [subject-verb-object](https://bliptext.com/articles/subject-verb-object) (SVO), similar to that of most modern [European languages](https://bliptext.com/articles/languages-of-europe) as well as English.\nHowever, considerable flexibility in word ordering exists, in contrast with languages such as [Japanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/japanese-language) or [Korean](https://bliptext.com/articles/korean-language), for instance, which always end clauses with verbs.\nIndonesian, while allowing for relatively flexible word orderings, does not mark for [grammatical case](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-case), nor does it make use of [grammatical gender](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-gender).\n\n## Affixes\nIndonesian words are composed of a root or a root plus derivational affixes.\nThe root is the primary lexical unit of a word and is usually bisyllabic, of the shape CV(C)CV(C).\nAffixes are \"glued\" onto roots (which are either nouns or verbs) to alter or expand the primary meaning associated with a given root, effectively generating new words, for example, masak (to cook) may become memasak (cooking), memasakkan (cook for), dimasak (be cooked), pemasak (a cook), masakan (a meal, cookery), termasak (accidentally cooked).\nThere are four types of affixes: [prefixes](https://bliptext.com/articles/prefixes) (awalan), [suffixes](https://bliptext.com/articles/suffixes) (akhiran), [circumfixes](https://bliptext.com/articles/circumfixes) (apitan) and [infixes](https://bliptext.com/articles/infixes) (sisipan).\nAffixes are categorized into noun, verb, and adjective affixes.\nMany initial consonants alternate in the presence of prefixes: sapu (to sweep) becomes menyapu (sweeps/sweeping); panggil (to call) becomes memanggil (calls/calling), tapis (to sieve) becomes menapis (sieves).\nOther examples of the use of [affixes](https://bliptext.com/articles/affix) to change the meaning of a word can be seen with the word ajar (to teach):\n-Kan and -i both increase the valency of verbs, but -i should be used \"if [the verb] is directly followed by an animate object.\"\n\n### Noun affixes\nNoun affixes are affixes that form nouns upon addition to root words.\nThe following are examples of noun affixes:\nThe prefix per- drops its r before r, l and frequently before p, t, k. In some words it is peng-; though formally distinct, these are treated as variants of the same prefix in Indonesian grammar books.\n\n### Verb affixes\nSimilarly, verb affixes in Indonesian are attached to root words to form verbs.\nIn Indonesian, there are:\n\n### Adjective affixes\nAdjective affixes are attached to root words to form adjectives:\nIn addition to these affixes, Indonesian also has a lot of borrowed affixes from other languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic and English.\nFor example, maha-, pasca-, eka-, bi-, anti-, pro- etc.\n\n## Nouns\nCommon derivational affixes for nouns are peng-/per-/juru- (actor, instrument, or someone characterized by the root), -an (collectivity, similarity, object, place, instrument), ke-...-an (abstractions and qualities, collectivities), per-/peng-...-an (abstraction, place, goal or result).\n\n### Gender\nIndonesian does not make use of [grammatical [gender](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-gender)](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-[gender](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-gender)), and there are only selected words that use natural [gender](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-gender).\nFor instance, the same word is used for he/him and she/her (dia or ia) or for his and her (dia, ia or -nya).\nNo real distinction is made between \"girlfriend\" and \"boyfriend\", both of which can be referred to as pacar (although more colloquial terms as cewek girl/girlfriend and cowok boy/boyfriend can also be found).\nA majority of Indonesian words that refer to people generally have a form that does not distinguish between the natural genders.\nHowever, unlike English, distinction is made between older or younger.\nThere are some words that have gender: for instance, putri means \"daughter\" while putra means \"son\"; pramugara means \"male flight attendant\" while pramugari means \"female flight attendant\".\nAnother example is olahragawan, which means \"sportsman\", versus olahragawati, meaning \"sportswoman\".\nOften, words like these (or certain suffixes such as \"-a\" and \"-i\" or \"-wan\" and \"wati\") are absorbed from other languages (in these cases, from [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit)).\nIn some regions of Indonesia such as Sumatra and Jakarta, abang (a gender-specific term meaning \"older brother\") is commonly used as a form of address for older siblings/males, while kakak (a non-gender specific term meaning \"older sibling\") is often used to mean \"older sister\".\nSimilarly, more direct influences from other languages, such as Javanese and Chinese, have also seen further use of other gendered words in Indonesian.\nFor example: Mas (\"older brother\"), Mbak (\"older sister\"), Koko (\"older brother\") and Cici (\"older sister\").\n\n### Number\nIndonesian grammar does not regularly mark [plurals](https://bliptext.com/articles/plural).\nIn Indonesian, to change a singular into a plural one either repeats the word or adds para before it (the latter for living things only); for example, \"students\" can be either murid-murid or para murid.\nPlurals are rarely used in Indonesian, especially in informal parlance.\nReduplication is often mentioned as the formal way to express the plural form of nouns in Indonesian; however, in informal daily discourse, speakers of Indonesian usually use other methods to indicate the concept of something being \"more than one\".\nReduplication may also indicate the conditions of variety and diversity as well, and not simply plurality.\n[Reduplication](https://bliptext.com/articles/reduplication) is commonly used to emphasise plurality; however, reduplication has many other functions.\nFor example, orang-orang means \"(all the) people\", but orang-orangan means \"scarecrow\".\nSimilarly, while hati means \"heart\" or \"liver\", hati-hati is a verb meaning \"to be careful\".\nAlso, not all reduplicated words are inherently plural, such as orang-orangan \"scarecrow/scarecrows\", biri-biri \"a/some sheep\" and kupu-kupu \"butterfly/butterflies\".\nSome reduplication is rhyming rather than exact, as in sayur-mayur \"(all sorts of) vegetables\".\nDistributive affixes derive mass nouns that are effectively plural: pohon \"tree\", pepohonan \"flora, trees\"; rumah \"house\", perumahan \"housing, houses\"; gunung \"mountain\", pegunungan \"mountain range, mountains\".\nQuantity words come before the noun: seribu orang \"a thousand people\", beberapa pegunungan \"a series of mountain ranges\", beberapa kupu-kupu \"some butterflies\".\nPlural in Indonesian serves just to explicitly mention the number of objects in sentence.\nFor example, Ani membeli satu kilo mangga (Ani buys one kilogram of mangoes).\nIn this case, \"mangoes\", which is plural, is not said as mangga-mangga because the plurality is implicit: the amount **a kilogram** means more than one mango rather than one giant mango.\nSo, as it is logically, one does not change the singular into the plural form, because it is not necessary and considered a [pleonasm](https://bliptext.com/articles/pleonasm) (in Indonesian often called pemborosan kata).\n\n## Pronouns\nPersonal pronouns are not a separate part of speech, but a subset of nouns.\nThey are frequently omitted, and there are numerous ways to say \"you\".\nCommonly the person's name, title, title with name, or occupation is used (\"does Johnny want to go?\", \"would Madam like to go?\"); kin terms, including [fictive kinship](https://bliptext.com/articles/fictive-kinship), are extremely common.\nHowever, there are also dedicated personal pronouns, as well as the demonstrative pronouns ini \"this, the\" and itu \"that, the\".\n\n### Personal pronouns\nFrom the perspective of a European language, Indonesian boasts a wide range of different pronouns, especially to refer to the addressee (the so-called second person pronouns).\nThese are used to differentiate several parameters of the person they are referred to, such as the social rank and the relationship between the addressee and the speaker.\nIndonesian also exhibits [pronoun avoidance](https://bliptext.com/articles/pronoun-avoidance), often preferring kinship terms and titles over pronouns, particularly for respectful forms of address.\nThe table below provides an overview of the most commonly and widely used pronouns in the Indonesian language:\nNotable among the personal-pronoun system is a distinction between [two forms of \"we\"](https://bliptext.com/articles/inclusive-and-exclusive-we): kita (you and me, you and us) and kami (us, but not you).\nThe distinction is not always followed in colloquial Indonesian.\nSaya and aku are the two major forms of \"I\".\nSaya is the more formal form, whereas aku is used with family, friends, and between lovers.\nColloquially, gue or gua (derived from Hokkien) is often used.\nHowever, this is only used when talking with close friends, and not used in family context as it is considered not polite.\nSahaya is an old or literary form of saya.\nSa(ha)ya may also be used for \"we\", but in such cases it is usually used with sekalian or semua \"all\"; this form is ambiguous as to whether it corresponds with inclusive kami or exclusive kita.\nLess common are hamba \"slave\", hamba tuan, hamba datuk (all extremely humble), beta (a royal addressing oneselves), patik (a commoner addressing a royal), kami (royal or editorial \"we\"), kita, təman, and kawan.\nThere are three common forms of \"you\", Anda (polite), kamu (familiar), and kalian \"all\" (commonly used as a plural form of you, slightly informal).\nAnda is used with strangers, recent acquaintances, in advertisements, in business, and when you wish to show distance, while kamu is used in situations where the speaker would use aku for \"I\".\nColloquially, lu (derived from Hokkien) is often used among close friends, just like how gue or gua is used when referring to \"I\".\nAnda sekalian is polite plural.\nParticularly in conversation, respectful titles like Bapak/Pak \"father\" (used for any older male), Ibu/Bu \"mother\" (any older woman), and tuan \"sir\" are often used instead of pronouns.\nEngkau (əngkau), commonly shortened to kau.\nThe common word for \"s/he\" and \"they\" is ia, which has the object and emphatic/focused form dia.\nBəliau \"his/her Honour\" is respectful.\nAs with \"you\", names and kin terms are extremely common.\nMereka \"someone\", mereka itu, or orang itu \"those people\" are used for \"they\".\nThere are a large number of other words for \"I\" and \"you\", many regional, dialectical, or borrowed from local languages.\nSaudara \"you\" (male) and saudari (female) (plural saudara-saudara or saudari-saudari) show utmost respect.\nDaku \"I\" and dikau \"you\" are poetic or romantic.\nIndonesian [gua](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-slang-language) \"I\" (from [Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien) ) and [lu](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-slang-language) \"you\" are slang and extremely informal.\nThe pronouns aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami, and kita are indigenous to Indonesian.\n\n### Possessive pronouns\nAku, kamu, engkau, and ia have short possessive [enclitic](https://bliptext.com/articles/enclitic) forms.\nAll others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic dia: meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia \"my table, our table, your table, his/her table\".\nThere are also [proclitic](https://bliptext.com/articles/proclitic) forms of aku, ku- and kau-.\nThese are used when there is no emphasis on the pronoun:\nHere ku-verb is used for a general report, aku verb is used for a factual statement, and emphatic aku-lah meng-verb (≈ \"I am the one who...\") for focus on the pronoun.\nThe suffix -nya is a special case: it can be also used to mark [definiteness](https://bliptext.com/articles/definiteness), or to link two nouns in possession ([his genitive](https://bliptext.com/articles/his-genitive)).\nIt is also even extended to pronouns and names.\nHowever, this usage has been occasionally criticized.\n\n### Demonstrative pronouns\nThere are two [demonstrative pronouns](https://bliptext.com/articles/demonstrative-pronoun) in Indonesian.\nIni \"this, these\" is used for a noun which is generally near to the speaker.\nItu \"that, those\" is used for a noun which is generally far from the speaker.\nEither may sometimes be equivalent to English \"the\".\nThere is no difference between singular and plural.\nHowever, plural can be indicated through duplication of a noun followed by a ini or itu.\nThe word yang \"which\" is often placed before demonstrative pronouns to give emphasis and a sense of certainty, particularly when making references or enquiries about something/ someone, like English \"this one\" or \"that one\".\n\n## Verbs\nVerbs are not [inflected](https://bliptext.com/articles/inflected-language) for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as \"yesterday\") or by other tense indicators, such as sudah \"already\" and belum \"not yet\".\nOn the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and to denote [voice](https://bliptext.com/articles/voice-grammar) or intentional and accidental [moods](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-mood).\nSome of these affixes are ignored in colloquial speech.\nExamples of these are the prefixes di- ([patient focus](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-alignment), traditionally called \"passive voice\", with OVA word order in the third person, and OAV in the first or second persons), meng- ([agent focus](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-alignment), traditionally called \"active voice\", with AVO word order), memper- and diper- ([causative](https://bliptext.com/articles/causative), agent and [patient focus](https://bliptext.com/articles/austronesian-alignment)), ber- ([stative](https://bliptext.com/articles/stative-verb) or habitual; intransitive VS order), and ter- (agentless actions, such as those which are involuntary, sudden, [stative](https://bliptext.com/articles/stative-verb) or accidental, for VA = VO order); the suffixes -kan ([causative](https://bliptext.com/articles/causative) or [benefactive](https://bliptext.com/articles/benefactive)) and -i (locative, repetitive, or exhaustive); and the circumfixes ber-...-an ([plural subject, diffuse action](https://bliptext.com/articles/pluractionality)) and ke-...-an (unintentional or potential action or state).\nForms in ter- and ke-...-an are often equivalent to adjectives in English.\n\n### Negation\nFour words are used for negation in Indonesian, namely tidak, bukan, jangan, and belum.\nFor example:\n\n### Prohibition\nFor negating imperatives or advising against certain actions in Indonesian, the word jangan (do not) is used before the verb.\nFor example,\n\n## Adjectives\nThere are grammatical adjectives in Indonesian.\n[Stative verbs](https://bliptext.com/articles/stative-verb) are often used for this purpose as well.\nAdjectives are always placed after the noun that they modify.\nTo say that something \"is\" an adjective, the determiners \"itu\" and \"ini\" (\"that\" and \"this\") are often used.\nFor example, in the sentence \"anjing itu galak\", the use of \"itu\" gives a meaning of \"the/that dog is ferocious\", while \"anjing ini galak\", gives a meaning of \"this dog is ferocious\".\nHowever, if \"itu\" or \"ini\" were not to be used, then \"anjing galak\" would only mean \"ferocious dog\", a plain adjective without any stative implications.\nThe all-purpose determiner, \"yang\", is also often used before adjectives, hence \"anjing yang galak\" also means \"ferocious dog\" or more literally \"dog which is ferocious\"; \"yang\" will often be used for clarity.\nHence, in a sentence such as \"saya didekati oleh anjing galak\" which means \"I was approached by a ferocious dog\", the use of the adjective \"galak\" is not stative at all.\nOften the \"ber-\" intransitive verb prefix, or the \"ter-\" stative prefix is used to express the meaning of \"to be...\".\nFor example, \"beda\" means \"different\", hence \"berbeda\" means \"to be different\"; \"awan\" means \"cloud\", hence \"berawan\" means \"cloudy\".\nUsing the \"ter-\" prefix, implies a state of being.\nFor example, \"buka\" means \"open\", hence \"terbuka\" means \"is opened\"; \"tutup\" means \"closed/shut\", hence \"tertutup\" means \"is closed/shut\".\n\n## Word order\nAdjectives, [demonstrative](https://bliptext.com/articles/demonstrative) determiners, and [possessive](https://bliptext.com/articles/possessive) determiners follow the noun they modify.\nIndonesian does not have a [grammatical subject](https://bliptext.com/articles/grammatical-subject) in the sense that English does.\nIn intransitive clauses, the noun comes before the verb.\nWhen there is both an [agent](https://bliptext.com/articles/agent-grammar) and an [object](https://bliptext.com/articles/object-grammar), these are separated by the verb (OVA or AVO), with the difference encoded in the voice of the verb.\nOVA, commonly but inaccurately called \"passive\", is the basic and most common word order.\nEither the agent or object or both may be omitted.\nThis is commonly done to accomplish one of two things:\nFor example, a polite shop assistant in a store may avoid the use of pronouns altogether and ask:\nFor example, a friend may enquire as to when you bought your property, to which you may respond:\nUltimately, the choice of voice and therefore word order is a choice between actor and patient and depends quite heavily on the language style and context.\n\n### Emphasis\nWord order is frequently modified for [focus](https://bliptext.com/articles/focus-grammar) or emphasis, with the [focus](https://bliptext.com/articles/focus-grammar)ed word usually placed at the beginning of the clause and followed by a slight pause (a break in [intonation](https://bliptext.com/articles/intonation-linguistics)):\nThe last two are more likely to be encountered in speech than in writing.\n\n## Measure words\nAnother distinguishing feature of Indonesian is its use of [measure words](https://bliptext.com/articles/measure-word), also called [classifiers](https://bliptext.com/articles/classifier-linguistics) (kata penggolong).\nIn this way, it is similar to many other languages of Asia, including [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language), [Japanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/japanese-language), [Vietnamese](https://bliptext.com/articles/vietnamese-language), [Thai](https://bliptext.com/articles/thai-language), [Burmese](https://bliptext.com/articles/burmese-language), and [Bengali](https://bliptext.com/articles/bengali-language).\nMeasure words are also found in English such as two head of cattle or a loaf of bread, where *two cattle and a bread would be ungrammatical.\nThe word satu reduces to se-, as it does in other compounds:\nExample:\nMeasure words are not necessary just to say \"a\": burung \"a bird, birds\".\nUsing se- plus a measure word is closer to English \"one\" or \"a certain\":\n\n# Writing system\nIndonesian is written with the [Latin script](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin-script).\nIt was originally based on the [Dutch spelling](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-spelling) and still bears some similarities to it.\nConsonants are represented in a way similar to [Italian](https://bliptext.com/articles/italian-language), although ⟨c⟩ is always (like English ⟨ch⟩), ⟨g⟩ is always (\"hard\") and ⟨j⟩ represents as it does in English.\nIn addition, ⟨ny⟩ represents the [palatal nasal](https://bliptext.com/articles/palatal-nasal), ⟨ng⟩ is used for the [velar nasal](https://bliptext.com/articles/velar-nasal) (which can occur word-initially), ⟨sy⟩ for (English ⟨sh⟩) and ⟨kh⟩ for the [voiceless velar fricative](https://bliptext.com/articles/voiceless-velar-fricative).\nBoth and are represented with ⟨e⟩.\nSpelling changes in the language that have occurred since Indonesian independence include:\nIntroduced in 1901, the van Ophuijsen system (named from the advisor of the system, Charles Adriaan van Ophuijsen) was the first standardization of romanized spelling.\nIt was most influenced by the then current [Dutch spelling system](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-orthography) and based on the dialect of Malay spoken in Johor.\nIn 1947, the spelling was changed into [Republican Spelling](https://bliptext.com/articles/republican-spelling-system) or Soewandi Spelling (named by at the time Minister of Education, Soewandi).\nThis spelling changed formerly spelled oe into u (however, the spelling influenced other aspects in orthography, for example writing reduplicated words).\nAll of the other changes were a part of the [Perfected Spelling System](https://bliptext.com/articles/perfected-spelling-system), an officially mandated [spelling reform](https://bliptext.com/articles/spelling-reform) in 1972.\nSome of the old spellings (which were derived from [Dutch orthography](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-orthography)) do survive in proper names; for example, the name of a former president of Indonesia is still sometimes written [Soeharto](https://bliptext.com/articles/suharto), and the central Java city of [Yogyakarta](https://bliptext.com/articles/yogyakarta-city) is sometimes written Jogjakarta.\nIn time, the spelling system is further updated and the latest update of Indonesian spelling system issued on 16 August 2022 by Head of Language Development and Fostering Agency decree No 0424/I/BS.00.01/2022.\n\n## Letter names and pronunciations\nThe [Indonesian alphabet](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-alphabet) is exactly the same as in ISO basic Latin alphabet.\nIndonesian follows the letter names of the [Dutch alphabet](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-alphabet).\nIndonesian alphabet has a [phonemic orthography](https://bliptext.com/articles/phonemic-orthography); words are spelled the way they are pronounced, with few exceptions.\nThe letters Q, V and X are rarely encountered, being chiefly used for writing [loanwords](https://bliptext.com/articles/loanword).\nIn addition, there are [digraphs](https://bliptext.com/articles/digraph-orthography) that are not considered separate letters of the alphabet:\n\n# Vocabulary\nAs a modern variety of Malay, Indonesian has been influenced by other languages, including [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language), [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language), [Greek](https://bliptext.com/articles/greek-language) (where the name of the country, Indonesia, comes from), [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic-language), [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language), [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language), [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit-language), [Tamil](https://bliptext.com/articles/tamil-language), [Hindi](https://bliptext.com/articles/hindi-language), and [Persian](https://bliptext.com/articles/persian-language).\nThe vast majority of Indonesian words, however, come from the root lexical stock of Austronesian (including Old Malay).\nThe study of Indonesian etymology and loan words reveals both its historical and social contexts.\nExamples are the early Sanskrit borrowings from the 7th century during the trading era, the borrowings from Arabic and Persian during the time of the establishment of Islam in particular, and those from Dutch during the colonial period.\nLinguistic history and cultural history are clearly linked.\nList of loan words of Indonesian language published by the [Badan Pengembangan Bahasa dan Perbukuan](https://bliptext.com/articles/language-development-and-fostering-agency) (The Language Center) under the [Ministry of Education and Culture](https://bliptext.com/articles/ministry-of-education-indonesia):\nNote: This list only lists foreign languages, thus omitting numerous local languages of Indonesia that have also been major lexical donors, such as Javanese, Sundanese, Betawi, etc.\n\n## Loan words of Sanskrit origin\nThe [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit) influence came from contacts with [India](https://bliptext.com/articles/india) since ancient times.\nThe words were either borrowed directly from India or with the intermediary of the [Old Javanese language](https://bliptext.com/articles/old-javanese-language).\nAlthough [Hinduism](https://bliptext.com/articles/hinduism) and [Buddhism](https://bliptext.com/articles/buddhism) are no longer the major religions of Indonesia, [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit), which was the language vehicle for these religions, is still held in high esteem and is comparable with the status of [Latin](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin) in [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language) and other Western European languages.\nSanskrit is also the main source for [neologisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/neologism), which are usually formed from Sanskrit roots.\nThe loanwords from Sanskrit cover many aspects of [religion](https://bliptext.com/[art](https://bliptext.com/articles/art)icles/religion), [art](https://bliptext.com/articles/art) and everyday life.\nFrom [[Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit)](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit-language) came such words as स्वर्ग surga (heaven), भाषा bahasa (language), काच kaca (glass, mirror), राज- raja (king), मनुष्य manusia (mankind), चिन्ता cinta (love), भूमि bumi (earth), भुवन buana (world), आगम agama (religion), स्त्री Istri (wife/woman), जय Jaya (victory/victorious), पुर Pura (city/temple/place) राक्षस [Raksasa](https://bliptext.com/articles/raksasa) (giant/monster), धर्म [Dharma](https://bliptext.com/articles/dharma) (rule/regulations), मन्त्र [Mantra](https://bliptext.com/articles/mantra) (words/poet/spiritual prayers), क्षत्रिय Satria (warrior/brave/soldier), विजय Wijaya (greatly victorious/great victory), etc. [[Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit)](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit-language) words and sentences are also used in names, titles, and mottos of the Indonesian National Police and Indonesian Armed Forces such as: [Bhayangkara](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-national-police), [Laksamana](https://bliptext.com/articles/laksamana), [Jatayu](https://bliptext.com/articles/jatayu), [Garuda](https://bliptext.com/articles/garuda), [Dharma](https://bliptext.com/articles/dharma)kerta Marga Reksyaka, [Jalesveva Jayamahe](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-navy), [Kartika Eka Paksi](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-army), [Swa Bhuwana Paksa](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-air-force), [Rastra Sewakottama](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-national-police), Yudha Siaga, etc.\nBecause [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit) has long been known in the [Indonesian archipelago](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-archipelago), [Sanskrit](https://bliptext.com/articles/sanskrit) loanwords, unlike those from other languages, have entered the basic vocabulary of Indonesian to such an extent that, for many, they are no longer perceived to be foreign.\nTherefore, one could write a short story using mostly Sanskrit-derived words.\nThe short story below consists of approximately 80 words in Indonesian that are all derived from Sanskrit, as well as a few native [function words](https://bliptext.com/articles/function-words) and affixes.\n\n## Loan words of Chinese origin\nThe relationship with China has been going since the 7th century when Chinese merchants traded in some areas of the archipelago such as [Riau](https://bliptext.com/articles/riau), [West Borneo](https://bliptext.com/articles/west-borneo), [East Kalimantan](https://bliptext.com/articles/east-kalimantan), and [North Maluku](https://bliptext.com/articles/north-maluku).\nAs the kingdom of Srivijaya appeared and flourished, China opened diplomatic relations with the kingdom in order to secure trade and seafaring.\nIn 922, Chinese travelers visited [Kahuripan](https://bliptext.com/articles/kahuripan) in [East Java](https://bliptext.com/articles/east-java).\nSince the 11th century, hundreds of thousands of Chinese migrants left [Mainland China](https://bliptext.com/articles/mainland-china) and settled in many parts of Nusantara (now called Indonesia).\nThe [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language) loanwords are usually concerned with cuisine, trade or often just things exclusively [Chinese](https://bliptext.com/articles/chinese-language).\nWords of Chinese origin (presented here with accompanying [Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien)/ Mandarin pronunciation derivatives as well as [traditional](https://bliptext.com/articles/traditional-characters) and [simplified characters](https://bliptext.com/articles/simplified-characters)) include loteng, (樓/層 = lóu/céng – [upper] floor/ level), mie (麵 > 面 [Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien) mī – noodles), [lumpia](https://bliptext.com/articles/lumpia) (潤餅 ([Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien) = lūn-piáⁿ) – springroll), cawan (茶碗 cháwǎn – teacup), teko (茶壺 > 茶壶 = cháhú [Mandarin], teh-ko [[Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien)] = teapot), 苦力 kuli (= 苦 khu (hard) and 力 li (energy) – coolie) and even the widely used slang terms gua and lu (from the [Hokkien](https://bliptext.com/articles/hokkien) 'goa' 我 and 'lu/li' 汝 – meaning 'I/ me' and 'you').\n\n## Loan words of Arabic origin\nMany Arabic words were brought and spread by merchants from [Arab Peninsula](https://bliptext.com/articles/arab-peninsula) like [Arabian](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabian-people), [Persian](https://bliptext.com/articles/persian-people), and from the western part of India, [Gujarat](https://bliptext.com/articles/gujarat) where many Muslims lived.\nAs a result, many Indonesian words come from the Arabic language.\nEspecially since the late 12th century, Old Malay was heavily influenced by the language and produced many great literary works such as [Syair](https://bliptext.com/articles/syair), [Babad](https://bliptext.com/articles/babad), [Hikayat](https://bliptext.com/articles/hikayat), and Suluk.\nThis century is known as The Golden Age of Indonesian Literature.\nMany loanwords from [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic-language) are mainly concerned with religion, in particular with [Islam](https://bliptext.com/articles/islam), and by extension, with greetings such as the word, \"selamat\" (from = health, soundness) means \"safe\" or \"lucky\".\nWords of [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/arabic-language) origin include dunia (from ' = the present world), names of days (except Minggu), such as Sabtu (from ' = Saturday), iklan (آعلان ' = advertisement), kabar (خبر ' = news), Kursi (كرسي ' = a chair), ijazah (إجازة ' = 'permission', certificate of authority, e.g. a school diploma certificate), kitab (كتاب ' = book), tertib (ترتيب ' = order/arrangement) and kamus (قاموس = dictionary).\n[Allah](https://bliptext.com/articles/allah), as is mostly the case for [Arabic](https://bliptext.com/articles/varieties-of-arabic) speakers, this is the word for [God](https://bliptext.com/articles/god) even in [Christian](https://bliptext.com/articles/christianity) [Bible](https://bliptext.com/articles/bible) translations.\nMany early Bible translators, when they came across some unusual [Hebrew](https://bliptext.com/articles/hebrew-language) words or proper names, used the Arabic cognates.\nIn the newer translations this practice is discontinued.\nThey now turn to [Greek](https://bliptext.com/articles/greek-language) names or use the original Hebrew Word.\nFor example, the name [Jesus](https://bliptext.com/articles/jesus) was initially translated as 'Isa, but is now spelt as Yesus.\nSeveral ecclesiastical terms derived from Arabic still exist in Indonesian language.\nIndonesian word for [bishop](https://bliptext.com/articles/bishop) is uskup (from = [bishop](https://bliptext.com/articles/bishop)).\nThis in turn makes the Indonesian term for [archbishop](https://bliptext.com/articles/archbishop) uskup agung (lit. 'great bishop'), which is combining the Arabic word with an Old Javanese word.\nThe term imam (from = leader, prayer leader) is used to translate a Catholic [priest](https://bliptext.com/articles/priest), beside its more common association with an Islamic prayer leader.\nSome Protestant denominations refer to their congregation jemaat (from = group, a community).\nEven the name of the [Bible](https://bliptext.com/articles/bible) in Indonesian translation is Alkitab (from = the book), which literally means \"the Book\".\n\n## Loan words of Portuguese origin\nAlongside [Malay](https://bliptext.com/articles/malay-language), [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language) was the [lingua franca](https://bliptext.com/articles/lingua-franca) for trade throughout the archipelago from the sixteenth century through to the early nineteenth century.\nThe Portuguese were among the first westerners to sail eastwards to the \"[Spice Islands](https://bliptext.com/articles/maluku-islands)\".\nLoanwords from [Portuguese](https://bliptext.com/articles/portuguese-language) were mainly connected with articles that the early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia.\nIndonesian words derived from Portuguese include meja (from mesa = table), bangku (from banco = bench), lemari/almari (from armário = closet), boneka (from boneca = doll), jendela (from janela = window), gereja (from igreja = church), misa (from missa = mass), Natal (from Natal = Christmas), Paskah (from Páscoa = Easter), pesta (from festa = party), dansa (from dança = dance), pesiar (from passear = cruise), bendera (from bandeira = flag), sepatu (from sapato = shoes), garpu (from garfo = fork), kemeja (from camisa = shirt), kereta (from carreta = chariot), pompa (from bomba hidráulica = pump), pigura (from figura = picture), roda (from roda = wheel), nona (from dona = young woman), sekolah (from escola = school), lentera (from lanterna = lantern), paderi (from padre = priest), Santo, Santa (from Santo, Santa = Saint), puisi (from poesia = poetry), keju (from queijo = cheese), mentega (from manteiga = butter), serdadu (from soldado = soldier), meski (from mas que = although), kamar (from câmara = room), laguna (from laguna = lagoon), lelang (from leilão = auction), persero (from parceiro = company), markisa (from maracujá = passion fruit), limau (from limão = lemon), kartu (from cartão = card), Inggris (from inglês = English), Sabtu (from sábado = Saturday), Minggu (from domingo = Sunday), etc.\n# [Indonesian word \"Gereja\" (Church) is derived from Portuguese \"Igreja\". The sign reads: \"Gereja & Candi Hati Kudus Tuhan Yesus Ganjuran Keuskupan Agung Semarang\" (The Church and Temple of the Sacred Heart of Jesus Ganjuran Archdiocese of Semarang). | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Front///gate///Ganjuran.jpg]\n\n## Loan words of Dutch origin\nThe former colonial power, the [Netherlands](https://bliptext.com/articles/netherlands), left a sizeable amount of vocabulary that can be seen in words such as polisi (from politie = police), kualitas (from kwaliteit = quality), aktual (from actueel = current), rokok (from roken = smoking cigarettes), korupsi (from corruptie = corruption), kantor (from kantoor = office), resleting (from ritssluiting = zipper), pelopor (from voorloper = frontrunner), persneling (from versnelling = transmission gear), setrum (from stroom = electricity current), maskapai (from maatschappij = company), apotek (from apotheek = pharmacy), handuk (from handdoek = towel), setrika (from strijkijzer = clothes iron), bioskop (from bioscoop = [movie theater](https://bliptext.com/articles/movie-theater)), spanduk (from spandoeken = banner), korsleting (from kortsluiting = short circuit), om (from oom = uncle), tante (from tante = aunt), traktir (from trakteer = treat) and gratis (from gratis = free).\nThese [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language) loanwords, and many other non-Italo-Iberian, European language loanwords that came via [Dutch](https://bliptext.com/articles/dutch-language), cover all aspects of life.\nSome Dutch loanwords, having clusters of several consonants, pose difficulties to speakers of Indonesian.\nThis problem is usually solved by insertion of the [schwa](https://bliptext.com/articles/schwa).\nFor example, Dutch schroef > sekrup (screw (n.)).\nOne scholar argues that 20% of Indonesian words are inspired by the Dutch language.\nBefore the standardization of the language, many Indonesian words follow standard Dutch alphabet and pronunciation such as \"oe\" for vowel \"u\" or \"dj\" for consonant \"j\" [dʒ].\nAs a result, Malay words are written with that orthography such as: passer for the word Pasar or djalan for the word jalan, older Indonesian generation tend to have their name written in such order as well.\n# [The Indonesian word of bioskop is derived from Dutch bioscoop (movie theater). | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/COLLECTIE///TROPENMUSEUM///Glodok///wijk///te///Djakarta///TMnr///10014951.jpg]\n\n## Loan words of English origin\nMany English words were incorporated into Indonesian through [globalization](https://bliptext.com/articles/globalization).\nMany Indonesians, however, mistake words already adopted from Dutch as words borrowed from English.\nIndonesian adopts English words with standardization.\nFor example: aksesori from accessory.\nHowever, there are several words that directly borrowed without standardization that have same meanings in English such as: bus, data, domain, detail, internet, film, golf, lift, monitor, radio, radar, unit, safari, sonar, video, and riil as real.\n\n## Other loan words\nModern Indonesian draws many of its words from foreign sources, there are many [synonyms](https://bliptext.com/articles/synonym).\nFor example, Indonesian has three words for \"book\", i.e. pustaka (from Sanskrit), kitab (from Arabic) and buku (from Dutch boek); however, each has a slightly different meaning.\nA pustaka is often connected with ancient wisdom or sometimes with esoteric knowledge.\nA derived form, perpustakaan means a library.\nA kitab is usually a religious scripture or a book containing moral guidance.\nThe Indonesian words for the [Bible](https://bliptext.com/articles/bible) and [Gospel](https://bliptext.com/articles/gospel) are Alkitab and Injil, both directly derived from Arabic.\nThe book containing the penal code is also called the kitab.\nBuku is the most common word for books.\nThere are direct borrowings from various other languages of the world, such as karaoke (from カラオケ) from [Japanese](https://bliptext.com/articles/japanese-language), and ebi (from えび) which means dried shrimp.\nMany words that originally are adopted through the Dutch language today however often are mistaken as English due to the similarity in the Germanic nature of both languages.\nIn some cases the words are replaced by English language through globalization: although the word arbei still literally means strawberry in Indonesian, today the usage of the word stroberi is more common.\n[Greek](https://bliptext.com/articles/greek-language) words such as demokrasi (from δημοκρατία ), filosofi, filsafat (both from φιλοσοφία ), mitos (from μῦθος ) came through Dutch, Arabic and Portuguese respectively.\nIt is notable that some of the loanwords that exist in both Indonesian and Malaysian languages are different in spelling and pronunciation mainly due to how they derived their origins: Malaysian utilises words that reflect the [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language) usage (as used by its former colonial power, the [British](https://bliptext.com/articles/united-kingdom)), while Indonesian uses a [Latinate](https://bliptext.com/articles/latin) form (e.g. aktiviti (Malaysian) vs. aktivitas (Indonesian), universiti (Malaysian) vs. universitas (Indonesian)).\n\n## Acronyms and portmanteau\nSince the time of the independence of Indonesia, Indonesian has seen a surge of [neologisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/neologism) which are formed as [acronyms](https://bliptext.com/articles/acronym) (less commonly also [initialisms](https://bliptext.com/articles/initialism)) or [blend words](https://bliptext.com/articles/blend-word).\nCommon acronyms are ABRI (, from Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia '[Indonesian National Armed Forces](https://bliptext.com/articles/indonesian-national-armed-forces)'), SIM (, from surat izin mengemudi 'driving licence'), SARA (, from suku, agama, ras, antargolongan 'ethnic group, religion, race, inter-group [matters]', used when referring to the background of intercommunal conflicts), HAM (, from hak asasi manusia 'human rights').\nBlend words/portmanteau are very common in Indonesian, and have become a productive tool of word formation in both formal and colloquial Indonesian.\nExamples from official usage include departments and officeholders (e.g. Menlu < Mentri Luar Negeri 'Foreign Minister', Kapolda < Kepala kepolisian daerah 'Head of Regional Police') or names of provinces and districts (Sulut < Sulawesi Utara 'North Sulawesi', Jabar < Jawa Barat 'West Java'. Other commonly used portmanteau include puskesmas < pusat kesehatan masyarakat 'community health center', sembako < sembilan bahan pokok 'basic commodities' (lit.\n'nine basic commodities').\n\n# Literature\nIndonesia hosts a variety of traditional verbal arts such as [poetry](https://bliptext.com/articles/poetry), [historical narratives](https://bliptext.com/articles/narrative-history), [romances](https://bliptext.com/articles/romance-film), and [drama](https://bliptext.com/articles/drama), which are expressed in local languages, but modern genres are expressed mainly in Indonesian.\nSome of the classic Indonesian stories include [Sitti Nurbaya](https://bliptext.com/articles/sitti-nurbaya) by [Marah Rusli](https://bliptext.com/articles/marah-rusli), [Azab dan Sengsara](https://bliptext.com/articles/azab-dan-sengsara) by [Merari Siregar](https://bliptext.com/articles/merari-siregar), and [Sengsara Membawa Nikmat](https://bliptext.com/articles/sengsara-membawa-nikmat) by [Tulis Sutan Sati](https://bliptext.com/articles/tulis-sutan-sati).\nModern literature like [novels](https://bliptext.com/articles/novel), [short stories](https://bliptext.com/articles/short-story), stage plays, and [free-form poetry](https://bliptext.com/articles/free-verse) has developed since the late years of the 19th century and has produced figures such as [novelist](https://bliptext.com/articles/novelist) [Pramoedya Ananta Toer](https://bliptext.com/articles/pramoedya-ananta-toer), [dramatist](https://bliptext.com/articles/dramatist) [W.S. Rendra](https://bliptext.com/articles/willibrordus-s-rendra), poet [Chairil Anwar](https://bliptext.com/articles/chairil-anwar), and [cinematographer](https://bliptext.com/articles/cinematographer) [Garin Nugroho](https://bliptext.com/articles/garin-nugroho).\nIndonesia's classic novels themselves offer insight into the [local culture](https://bliptext.com/articles/culture-of-indonesia) and traditions and the historical background before and immediately after the country gained independence.\nOne notable example is Shackles, which was written by [Armijn Pane](https://bliptext.com/articles/armijn-pane) in 1940.\nOriginally titled [Belenggu](https://bliptext.com/articles/belenggu), it has been translated into many languages, including [English](https://bliptext.com/articles/english-language) and [German](https://bliptext.com/articles/german-language).\n\n# As speakers of other languages\nOver the past few years, interest in learning Indonesian has grown among non-Indonesians.\nVarious universities have started to offer courses that emphasise the teaching of the language to non-Indonesians.\nIn addition to national universities, private institutions have also started to offer courses, like the Indonesia Australia Language Foundation and the Lembaga Indonesia Amerika.\nAs early as 1988, teachers of the language have expressed the importance of a standardized Bahasa Indonesia bagi Penutur Asing (also called **BIPA**, literally Indonesian Language for Foreign Speaker) materials (mostly books), and this need became more evident during the 4th International Congress on the Teaching of Indonesian to Speakers of Other Languages held in 2001.\nSince 2013, the Indonesian embassy in the Philippines has given basic Indonesian language courses to 16 batches of Filipino students, as well as training to members of the [Armed Forces of the Philippines](https://bliptext.com/articles/armed-forces-of-the-philippines).\nIn an interview, [Department of Education](https://bliptext.com/articles/department-of-education-philippines) Secretary [Armin Luistro](https://bliptext.com/articles/armin-luistro) said that the country's government should promote Indonesian or Malay, which are related to Filipino.\nThus, the possibility of offering it as an optional subject in public schools is being studied.\nThe Indonesian embassy in Washington, D.C., United States, also began offering free Indonesian language courses at the beginner and intermediate level.\n# [BIPA (Bahasa Indonesia untuk Penutur Asing) book, which helps foreigners learn the Indonesian language | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/BIPA///photograph.jpg]\n\n# Words\n\n## Numbers\n# [2013 edition of one thousand Indonesian Rupiah banknote, featuring Indonesian national hero Thomas Matulessy | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/1000///rupiah///bill%2C///2000///series///%282013///date%29%2C///processed%2C///obverse%2Breverse.jpg]\n\n### Cardinal\n\n### Ordinal\n\n## Days and months\n# [Indonesian-language calendar | upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Kalender///Indonesia.jpg]\n\n### Days\n\n### Months\n\n## Common phrases\n\n## Example\nThe following texts are excerpts from the official translations of the [Universal Declaration of Human Rights](https://bliptext.com/articles/universal-declaration-of-human-rights) in Indonesian and Malaysian Malay, along with the original declaration in English.\n\n## English-Indonesian dictionaries","revisionCount":0},"hasMore":false,"nextCursor":null}