Ho (, Warang Citi: 𑢹𑣉𑣉 𑣎𑣋𑣜) is a Munda language of the Austroasiatic language family spoken primarily in India by about 2.2 million people (0.202% of India's population) per the 2001 census. It is spoken by the Ho, Munda, Kolha and Kol tribal communities of Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal and Assam and is written using Warang Citi script. Devanagari, Latin and Odia script are also used, although native speakers are said to prefer Warang Chiti, invented by Lako Bodra. The name Ho is derived from the native word "𑣙𑣉𑣉" meaning human being. Ho is closely related to Mundari and Santali. Ho and Mundari are often described as sister languages. Ho is closer to the Mayurbhanj dialect of Mundari than the Mundari variety spoken in Jharkhand. While being ethnically and linguistically close, Ho and Mundari speakers form distinct regional identities.

Geographcal distribution

Around half of all Ho speakers reside in West Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, where they form a majority. Ho speakers are also found in districts of East Singhbhum in southern Jharkhand, Mayurbhanj and Keonjhar in northern Odisha.

Phonology

Consonants

Vowels

Grammar

Like other languages of the Munda family, Ho has a mostly suffixing agglutinative inflictional morphology and follows accusative morphosyntactic alignment. There is some debate on whether Munda languages have word classes, an item from any word class can function as a verb in Ho. Ho does not have relative pronouns natively and relies on the participle forms of verbs, the forms that includes aspect, object and transitivity, but no mood markers, to form relative clauses.

Nouns and noun phrases

Number, possession and case suffixes are added to nouns. Alienable and inalienable possesions are distinguished.

Number and possession

Ho distinguishes singular, dual and plural numbers. Number suffixes are generally written separate from base nouns.

Number and inalienable possession

Construction for alienable possessions is different form inalienable possessions, En Eraaḱ Kolom "That woman's thresing floor", and En Era Gauńte "That woman's aunt". Suffixes for inalienable possessions only occur in the singular.

Pronouns

Ho personal pronoun distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.

Numerals

Postpositions

Particles

Verbs

Writing system

Ho has been written in various scripts, starting from the first written record of 1824 to the present day, mostly using the Latin alphabet, Devanagari, Odia and more recently using the Warang Chiti script. Most writing done in Jharkhand tends to use the Devanagari script, while in Odisha it is the Odia script. While community intellectuals have been promoting the usage of Warang Chiti, it is yet to be widely used among Ho people due to it not being a part of school education. In 1985, a committee consisting of intellectuals including Ram Dayal Munda and Bhagey Gobardhan deliberated on common script for Ho, and decided in favor of Warang Chiti, eliminating competition from scripts put forth by other inventors such as Sangram Sindhu's Owar Anka Gār Lipi, disseminated by an institution called Sindhu Jumur, Rohidas Singh Nag's Mundari Bani Hisir Champa, Raghunath Purty's Ho Ol Lipi, Purushottam Godsora's Srishti Lipi among others.

History

The lexicon of the language reflects close association with nature and living proximity with birds and beasts which is typical for tribal languages. The Latin, Devanagari and Warang Citi scripts have been used in the field of teaching and learning. In 1953, the department of Education, Government of Bihar set out instructions to all the Divisional Inspectors of schools. The government maintained that 'the pupil-teachers whose mother tongue is other than Hindi should be given the option of maintaining their records in their mother tongue. In every junior Training School besides Hindi, a second mother-tongue as accepted in Government resolution no.645ER of 10 August 1953 should be invariably taught.' The plan has been to provide education in their mother tongue at the primary level. Since 1976, the Ho language is being imparted at intermediate and graduate courses in different colleges under the Ranchi University. The university opened a separate department named Tribal and Regional Languages in 1981. In erstwhile Bihar, the Information and Mass Communication department regularly published Ho articles, folk stories, songs in Devanagari script in a weekly named Adivasi Saptahik. There are significant initiatives inculcated in development of Ho language. A pioneering work was started at Ete Turtung Akhara, Jhinkapani to study and develop the Ho language under the leadership of late Lako Bodra with the help of Adi Sanskriti Evam Vigyan Sansthan. The institute published a book in 1963 titled Ho Hayam Paham Puti in Warang Chiti and introduced the letters of Warang Chiti, Kakahara. A. Pathak and N.K. Verma tried to compare the Warang Citi with Indus script in Echoes of Indus Valley. Sudhanshu Kumar Ray in his 'Indus Script' described that the script Warang Chiti resembles the script of Indus that was discovered by Ashok Pagal and Bulu Imam in the caves of Aswara hill near Baraka village. Xavier Ho Publication, Lupungutu has been publishing Ho books in Devanagri. John Deeney published Ho Grammar and Vocabulary in 1975, written in the Latin.

Usage

Under the Multilingual Education (MLE) programme, Odisha government has been providing primary education in Ho speaking areas. The University Grants Commission of India has already recognized Ho as a language and literature. Now, UGC is conducting National Eligibility Test examination in Ho language under the "'subject code 70"' in Tribal and Regional Language/Literature group. In Odisha and Jharkhand, Education in Ho at the primary level was introduced in 20 and 449 schools respectively and about 44,502 tribal students are pursuing their studies in the language. Besides education, Ho has also got its due recognition in the world of mass media. For the last few years, All India Radio (AIR) has been airing songs in Ho from the AIR centres in Keonjhar, Rourkela and Cuttack besides Baripada in Mayurbhanj district of Odisha state. Regular programs in Ho are broadcast from Chaibasa and Jamshedpur AIR centres in Jharkhand. Similarly, from Ranchi AIR centre in Jharkhand, regional news bulletins are broadcast two days a week Friday and Sunday.

Universities

The following universities offer courses on Ho:

Educational institutions

The following educational institutions offer courses on Ho:

Literature

Demand for inclusion in the Eighth Schedule

Governments of Odisha and Jharkhand have been making demands for Ho to be included in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India. Ho peoples are also making continuous efforts to fulfill their demands as to be included in 8th scheduled. Rajya Sabha member and Union Petroleum and Steel Minister Dharmendra Pradhan had also submitted a memorandum demanding that the Government of India include Ho in the Constitution to give it an official status.The same request has also been made by the Department of Personnel, Jharkhand. Former Home Minister Rajnath singh had assured that Ho would be included in Eighth Scheduled, and assured to take appropriates steps to fulfil the demand, said union minister Dharmendra Pradhan. Erstwhile Jharkhand Chief Minister Hemant Soren has written to the Home Ministry for the inclusion of Ho into the Eighth Schedule of Indian Constitution.