A high-stakes test is a test with important consequences for the test taker. Passing has important benefits, such as a high school diploma, a scholarship, or a license to practice a profession. Failing has important disadvantages, such as being forced to take remedial classes until the test can be passed, not being allowed to drive a car, or difficulty finding employment. The use and misuse of high-stakes tests is a controversial topic in public education, especially in the United States and U.K., where they have become especially popular in recent years, used not only to assess school-age students but in attempts to increase teacher accountability.

Definitions

In common usage, a high-stakes test is any test that has major consequences or is the basis of a major decision. Under a more precise definition, a high-stakes test is any test that: For example, exit examinations for high school graduation are often high-stakes tests: there is a single, defined test (the student must pass this test; no other test can be substituted); some scores are high enough to pass and others are not; and failing has the direct consequence of preventing graduation. Similarly, driving tests are often high-stakes, as they also meet the same three criteria. High-stakes testing is not synonymous with high-pressure testing. An American high school student might feel pressure to perform well on the SAT-I college aptitude exam. However, SAT scores do not directly determine admission to any college or university, and there is no clear line drawn between those who pass and those who fail, so it is not formally considered a high-stakes test. On the other hand, because the SAT-I scores are given significant weight in the admissions process at some schools, many people believe that it has consequences for doing well or poorly, and it could therefore be considered a high-stakes test under the simpler, common definition. A high-stakes test can be contrasted with a medium-stakes test or a low-stakes test. A medium-stakes test might provide access to a desirable but less necessary benefit, such as an award, or it is only one component of a decision-making process, such as an admissions program that looks at the test results plus other factors. A low-stakes test has no significant consequences to the test taker.

The stakes

High stakes are not a characteristic of the test itself, but rather of the consequences placed on the outcome. For example, no matter what type of test is used—written essays, computer-based multiple choice, oral examination, performance test, or anything else—a medical licensing test must be passed to practice medicine. The perception of the stakes may vary. For example, college students who wish to skip an introductory-level course are often given exams to see whether they have already mastered the material and can be passed to the next level. Passing the exam can reduce tuition costs and time spent at university. A student who is anxious to have these benefits may consider the test to be a high-stakes exam. Another student, who places no importance on the outcome, so long as he is placed in a class that is appropriate to his skill level, may consider the same exam to be a low-stakes test. The phrase "high stakes" is derived directly from a gambling term. In gambling, a stake is the quantity of money or other goods that is risked on the outcome of some specific event. A high-stakes game is one in which, in the player's personal opinion, a large quantity of money is being risked. The term is meant to imply that implementing such a system introduces uncertainty and potential losses for test takers, who must pass the exam to "win," instead of being able to obtain the goal through other means.

Examples

Examples of high-stakes tests and their "stakes" include:

Stakeholders

A high-stakes system may be intended to benefit people other than the test-taker. For professional certification and licensure examinations, the purpose of the test is to protect the general public from incompetent practitioners. The individual stakes of the medical student and the medical school are, hopefully, balanced against the social stakes of possibly allowing an incompetent doctor to practice medicine. A test may be "high-stakes" based on consequences for others beyond the individual test-taker. For example, an individual medical student who fails a licensing exam cannot practice his or her profession. However, if enough students at the same school fail the exam, the school's reputation and accreditation may be jeopardized. Similarly, testing under the U.S.'s No Child Left Behind Act had no direct negative consequences for failing students, but potentially serious consequences for their schools, including loss of accreditation, funding, teacher pay, teacher employment, or changes to the school's management. The stakes were therefore high for the school, but low for the individual test-takers.

Assessments used

Any form of assessment can be used as a high-stakes test. Many times, an inexpensive multiple-choice test is chosen for convenience. A high-stakes assessment may also involve answering open-ended questions or a practical, hands-on section. For example, a typical high-stakes licensing exam for a medical nurse determines whether the nurse can insert an I.V. line by watching the nurse actually do this task. These assessments are called authentic assessments or performance tests. Some high-stakes tests may be standardized tests (in which all examinees take the same test under reasonably equal conditions), with the expectation that standardization affords all examinees a fair and equal opportunity to pass. Some high-stakes tests are non-standardized, such as a theater audition. As with other tests, high-stakes tests may be criterion-referenced or norm-referenced. For example, a written driver's license examination typically is criterion-referenced, with an unlimited number of potential drivers able to pass if they correctly answer a certain percentage of questions. On the other hand, essay portions of some bar exams are often norm-referenced, with the worst essays failed and the best essays passed, without regard for the overall quality of the essays. The "clear line" between passing and failing on an exam may be achieved through use of a cut score: for example, test takers correctly answering 75% or more of the questions pass the test; test takers correctly answering 74% or fewer fail, or don't "make the cut". In large-scale high-stakes testing, rigorous and expensive standard-setting studies may be employed to determine the ideal cut score or to keep the test results consistent between groups taking the test at different times.

Criticisms

High-stakes tests, despite their extensive usage for determination of academic and non-academic proficiency, are subject to criticism for various reasons. Example concerns include the following:

Advantages

In addition to the criticisms, high-stakes testing retains some advantages: