Footwear refers to garments worn on the feet, which typically serve the purpose of protection against adversities of the environment such as wear from rough ground; stability on slippery ground; and temperature. Cultures have different customs regarding footwear. These include not using any in some situations, usually bearing a symbolic meaning. This can however also be imposed on specific individuals to place them at a practical disadvantage against shod people, if they are excluded from having footwear available or are prohibited from using any. This usually takes place in situations of captivity, such as imprisonment or slavery, where the groups are among other things distinctly divided by whether or not footwear is being worn. In some cultures, people remove their shoes before entering a home. Bare feet are also seen as a sign of humility and respect, and adherents of many religions worship or mourn while barefoot. Some religious communities explicitly require people to remove shoes before they enter holy buildings, such as temples. In several cultures people remove their shoes as a sign of respect towards someone of higher standing. Similarly, deliberately forcing other people to go barefoot while being shod oneself has been used to clearly showcase and convey one's superiority within a setting of power disparity. Practitioners of the craft of shoemaking are called shoemakers, cobblers, or cordwainers.

History

Footwear has been used by humans since prehistoric times, with paleoclimatology suggesting that they would have been needed in some areas of human settlement by at least 50,000years ago during the Last Glacial Period. Osteologists have found evidence of the effect of footwear on human remains by around 40,000years ago. The oldest shoes so far recovered were found by a team under Luther Cressman in Fort Rock Cave, Oregon, US, in 1938. They had been preserved under the Mazama Ash deposited c. 5025 BC during the volcanic eruption that formed Crater Lake. In 1999, they were dated to around 10,500–9,300 BP.

Materials

Modern footwear is usually made of leather or plastic, and rubber. In fact, leather was one of the original materials used for the first versions of a shoe. The soles can be made of rubber or plastic, sometimes with the addition of a sheet of metal on the inside. Roman sandals had sheets of metal on their soles so that they would not bend out of shape. In more recent times, footwear suppliers such as Nike have begun to source environmentally friendly materials.

Components

Types

Boots

• Chukka boots • Combat boots • Cowboy boots • Derby boots • Fashion boots • Go-go boots • Hiking boots • Motorcycle boots • Mukluk • Platform boots • Riding boots • Russian boots • Seaboots • Tabi boots • Tanker boots • Thigh-high boots • Valenki • Veldskoen • Waders • Wellington boots • Winklepickers

Shoes

• Athletic shoes (also known as trainers or sneakers) • Ballet flats • Brothel creepers • Court shoes (known in the US as pumps) • Diabetic shoes • Espadrilles • Galoshes • Kitten heels • Lace-up shoes • * Derby shoes • * Oxford shoes • * Brogues • * Blucher shoes • High-tops • Loafers • Mary Janes • Moccasins • Monks • Mules • Platform shoes • Plimsoll shoes • School shoes • Skate shoes • Tap shoes • Toe shoes

Sandals

Slippers

Specific footwear

Traditional footwear

Socks

Footwear industry

In Europe, recent decades have seen a decline in the footwear industry. While about 27,000 firms were in business in 2005, only 21,700 remained in 2009. Not only have these firms decreased in number, but direct employment has also reduced within the sector. In the U.S., the annual footwear industry revenue was $48 billion in 2012. In 2015, there were about 29,000 shoe stores in the U.S. and the shoe industry employed about 189,000 people. Due to rising imports, these numbers are also declining. The only way of staying afloat in the shoe market is to establish a presence in niche markets.

Safety of footwear products

To ensure high quality and safety of footwear, manufacturers have to make sure all products comply to existing and relevant standards. By producing footwear in accordance with national and international regulations, potential risks can be minimized and the interest of both textile manufacturers and consumers can be protected. The following standards/regulations apply to footwear products:

Impressions

Footwear can create two types of impressions: two-dimensional and three-dimensional impressions. When footwear places material onto a solid surface, it creates a two-dimensional impression. These types of impressions can be made with a variety of substances, like dirt and sand. When footwear removes material from a soft surface, it creates a three-dimensional impression. These types of impressions can be made in a variety of soft substances, like snow and dirt. Two-dimensional impressions also differ from three-dimensional impressions because the latter demonstrate length, width, and depth whereas two-dimensional impressions only demonstrate the first two aspects.